1.) Because people in regions of a country feel oppressed/neglected.

2.) Because of political divisions.

3.) Because of different religious ideas.

Define the words strategy & tactics in regard to warfare?

Strategies=the whoel concept & planning of wars & campaigns.

Tactics=methods to make the strategies a sucess.

Describe guerilla warfare.

Smaller groups operating independently to attack the enemy wherever possible, sometimes behind its own lines.

To what does the term "partisans" refer?

Non-military groups who take up arms to attack the enemy.

To what does the term "historiography" refer?

The study of the writing of history. The term is also used to describe the different ways that historians have written different aspects of the past. 

What were the long term causes of the war?

1.) Imperial rivalry

     2.) Rivalry over trade & markets

3.) Militarism

4. Alliances & treaties

What did Britain, France, Germany, the USA, parts of Austrain Empire, Italy & Russia, all experience throughout the 19th century?

They all experienced considerable growth in industry, with more & more people dependent on the production & export of manufactured goods.

How did nearly all the European powers improve their militaries after 1870?

They increased the size of their armies the sophistication of their weapons, the technology used to wage war on land & sea. Development in transportation (railways) could transport more troops & they started developing more detailed war plans.

What linked imperial rivalry, economic pressure for more markets, militarism & nationalism together?

The network of alliances that emerged from the late 19th century linked imperial rivalry, economic pressure, militarism & nationalism together. 

By 1914 what were two distinct "sides" that emerged from the European alliances?

It was the Triple Alliance (Austria, Germany, & Italy) & the Triple Entente (France, Russia & Britain.)

What was Britiain's only formal alliance before 1914?

It was a 1902 treaty with Japan, promising mutual assistance if either were attacked by Russia.

To what empire had the Balkans originally belonged?

The Balkans were originally part of the Ottoman Empire.

Who was Giuseppe Garibaldi?

He led a nationalist movement which invaded Sicily & Naples, who had been ruled by a Bourbon king. Giuseppe Garibaldi was from Piedmont.

How did Austria lose its dominance over Germany?

Austria was defeated in 1866 in a war against Prussia.

How did its subject peoples feel about Austro-Hungarian control?

They were increasingly resentful of the AUstro-Hungarian control. The Czechs in particular resented being controlled by a German speaking emperor. However, none of these groups were strong enough on their own to break free. 

What agreement did Russia & Austria make in 1908?

Russia & Austria agreed that sometime in the future Austria might absorb Bosnia Herzegovina & in return for that, Austria would support Russia's demand to move ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean through the Turkish straights.

What nations formed the Balkan League in 1912?

Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece & Montenegro

What was the purpose of this alliance?

The purpose was to drive the Turks from Europe

What territorial changes resulted from the war among the Balkan allies?

Serbia expanded into the Kosovo region & norther & central Macedonia. Turkey was expelled from Europe, except for the area around Adrianople, & its navy was defeated by Greece. Austria insisted on an independent Albania to restrict Serbia's access to the Adriatic Sea. 

How far did the Western Front extend?

From the English Channel to the Swiss fronteir

How far did the Eastern Front extend?

From the Baltic to the Black Sea

By what was the war characterized?

By opening moves of intense activity & the deployment of millions of men. However, for much of the war, movement was restricted & both sides dug in behind increasingly complex lines of defencse (trenches)

What war a key feature of the war for much of its duration?

1.) Attrition 

2.) Neither side found it possible to acheive a decisive outcome on the battlefield, so they had to wear down the enemy by draining it of men & resources. 

3.) The war at sea saw few decisive encounters & was characterized by blockades & attacks on merchant shipping as each side tried to starve the other.

4.) The use of air power pointed the way to future developments, but the technology of the time was not far enough advanced for air warfare to play a decisive role.

What changes in the final part of the war anticipated the nature of the Second World War?

The war led to the development of weaponry on a new scale. Artillery was larger & more precise; air power advanced far beyond the primitive combat of 1914. Battleships had not proven significant, but submarines had nearly won the war for Germany. The tank was a major military development. After that it was accepted that future conflicts would rely heavily on both tanks & aircraft. 

What revolutions weree a result of World War I?

Two in Russia (in February & October 1917) & the attempted revolutions in Hungary & Germany. It also encouraged the growth of the communist & nationalist movements in China.

What factors had revolutionized warfare since 1815?

1.) The Industrial Revolution 

2.) The growth of modern science & technology

3.) Larger populations

4.) A revolution in transport, especially railways

5.) The growth of mass communication & national feeling

On what key facts was the German Schlieffen Plan based?

What were the key points of the Schlieffen Plan?

What major problems appeared in the Schlieffen Plan as the German offensive began?

What fundamental misundersanding of modern warfare was behind many of these issues?

Victory would not be achieved by brillant strategic moves or the fll of capital cities, but by the side that destroyed the enemy armies in the field. In a war between peoples, victory could only be achieved by the complete distruction of the enemy's will to win. 

Why did the Schlieffen Plan fail?

What was the greatest lost opportunity of the war, & what resulted from this on the Eastern Front?

The Russian failure to exploit its initial successes was the greatest lost opportunity of the war & cost Russia dearly. Driven back, the Russian armies had to regroup & defend, & the conflict on the Eastern Front, like that in the West, become one of trench warfare.

What were characteristics of the war on the Western Front?

What was the only real plan in 1915 to break through the trench lines?

How did the revisionists of historians like John Terraine in Haig, The Educated Soldier & Gary Sheffield

What British naval raid weakened the threat of German U-boats in 1918?

In April 1918, the U-boat base at Zeebrugge was successfully attacked & blocked by a British naval raid. The German sailors were restless in Kiel & mutunied in 1918 when they were ordered out for a last great battle with Britain.

To what was the use of planes in war limited in 1914?

The use of planes in war was limited to reconnaissance.

To what country first used bombing & weapons fired from planes?

The Germans dropped bombs on Liege from aircraft as early as August 1914. From this developed attempts to shoot down enemy planes, & all countries increased their production of military aircraft. 

Who were two of the famous air aces?

German Count von Richthoven (Red Baron) & British Albert Ball

What did Britain's Flying Corps eventually become?

Britain's Flying Corps eventually became the Royal Air-Force (RAF)

Which side took the lead in using planes?

Both sides developed air technology but the Allies took the lead in  using their planes in conjunction with infantry, tanks & artillery, anticipating the co-ordination of air & land warfare that was a more significant feature of wars after 1939.

What happened in Russia in February 1917?

What factors led the USA to declare war on Germany in April 1917?

Germany's reversion to unrestricted submarine warfare & the US also was angered at the discovery that Germany had been plotting with Mexico to wage war against USA

What effectively reduced France's participation in World War I in 1917?

Futile French attacks in the Chemin des Dames offensive led to a mutiny in the French army that effectively reduced its participation. Against all pre-war expectations, the deciding struggle would be between Germany & Britiain

Why was the Battle of Vimy Ridge successful?

The Battle of Vimy Ridge, though costly, was short, Britain attained its objectives & achieved surprise by using flexible tactics. 

What was Operation Michael?

The German offensive that began in March 1918, it was codenamed Operation Michael, broke the stalemate, & the Western Front shifted for the first time since 1914.

What problems was Germany facing on all front?

1. The Turks had been decisively defeated by British forces in the Middle East in 1918. The great Battle of Megiddo in Syria was decisive. 2. Austria had been defeated in another major battle of the Italian Front-Vittorio Veneto- &, with the continual drain of the campaigns in Russia, it was not in a position to continue its involvement in the war. 3. Greece was persuaded to abandon its neutrality & an allied force that had landed at Salonika, but which had been inactive since 1917, began to advance through the Balkans. 4. The U-boats had been overcome by superior tactics, which protected Allied shipping by convoys, & they had been weakened by a British naval raid on the U-boat based at Zeebrugge. 5. The Allied naval blockade, together with the disruption of agriculture by wartime requistioning, had created serious food shortages in Germany. These led to growing discontent in German cities. There was a fear that Germany would experience a revolution similar to that in Russia. 6. The arrival of AMerican troops & equipment, together with the US credit for the Allies to purchase was supplies, left the Germans in unequal position: they couldn't match the manpower & production available to the Allies. The nerve of the German high command broke at a crucial time, & they handed over power to the civilian parliament & advised that the war could not be won. 7.US president Woodrow Wilson's offer of peace terms suggested a way out for a war-weary Germany, isolated by the defeat of its allies & fearful of internal unrest & revolution.

How had naval technology progressed after 1815?

The age of the sail gave way to the age of steam; shops were equipped with formidable long-range guns & armored with the latest steel plating.

There was a great deal of criticism about the war, especially as losses rose. The British prime minister Herbert Asquith was forced to resign in 1916 in favor of a stronger war leader, David Lloyd George faced strikes, the rapid rise of trade unions, & support for socialism. In Germany, shortages on the home front resulted in discontent & there was widespread dislike of a virtual military dictatorship. The disturbances in the German fleet & among the workers by the end of the war led to attempts at revolution. Good & fuel shortages in Russia & discontent among the elite at the poor managements of the war by Tsar Nicholas II led to a revolution in St.Petersburg in 1917 the abdication of the tsar. 

What mutinies took place during the war?

The Russian Revolution was possible because the tsar's troops did not obey orders to suppress discontent. In 1917, even some front-line troops war had been strong during the initial battles for the frontier & Verdun campaign of 1916, but the futile Chemin des Dame offensive of 1917 gave rise to the only significant large-scale mutinies of the war. 

What problems & weaknesses of the Russian regime were brought to light by World War I?

The heavy casualties, the shortage of food, & the decision of the tsar to command his own forces & therefore, take the blame for Russia's millitary defeats. 

What decisions by the new provisional government created even more discontent in Russia?

The new provisional government decide to continue the war.

How did the Bolsheviks achieve power?

The one group that supported peace was the Marxist party, called the Bolsheviks & led by Vladmir llych Lenin. Their slogan, "Peace, Land & Bread" won them increasing support & they achieved power by a sudden takeover of Petrograd in October 1917.

What was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk? 

In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsky, Lenin withdrew from the war, & signed away large areas of Russia, though some areas like the Ukraine were later recovered, other areas were not taken back until after the Second World War.

What two revolutions did Russia experience in 1917?

One of which ended the Romanov dynasty that had ruled since 1613 & the whole insitution of tsarism. The second, masterminded by Trotsky & Lenin, ended the parliamentary democracy that had been set up in its place & brought about the first communist state, which lasted until 1991. 

Who was Benito Mussolini?

In Italy, after a disturbed post-war period, a right-wing dictatorship emerged from 1922 under Benito Mussolini, which owed up much to the discontent brought by the war. Mussolini's dictatorship lasted until 1943. 

Who was Kemal Ataturk?

The defeats suffered by Turkey inspired a revolution in the central homeland against the Ottoman sultans. This led to a new, Ataturk, a successful military commander of the First World War who modernized the country. 

What different agendas did the Allied leaders bring to the peace conference in Paris? 

1. The French wanted revenge & future security. 2. The British desired imperial gain. 3. Italy & Japan were seeking territorial gains. 

How was the map of Europe transformed by the peace treaties?

The map of Europe was transformed by the peace treaties, as the nationalities of Europe struggled to establish independent states. 

How was the map of Europe transformed by the peace treaties? 

The map of Europe was transformed by the peace treaties, as the nationalities of Europe struggled to establish independent states.

What countries had the support of the victorious powers & gained their dream of independence? 

There was a new Poland, a new Czech state in alliance with the Slovacks, the new states of Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, & Finland, freed from Russian control. 

Who saw themselves as losing powers?

Russia, Germany, Italy & Japan saw themselves as losing powers.

What were the economic effects of the war? 

What did the war bring to women?

The war brought freedom & mobility for women, who often moved away from home & lived as independent workers, enjoying a degree of social & sexual freedom that would have been difficult in the pre-war years. Much of this freedom did not carry on into peacetime, but it was hard to turn back the clock, & women's role had been undeniable changed. 

To what does the term 1919-ism refer? 

A movement in which the old capitalist imperialist & classridden societies seemed outdated & a new, more idealistic world order was called for. 

What movements in the United States & elsewhere where part of 1919-ism?

Prohibition in the US was part of this desire for social change & for new standards. On the other hand, violent anarchism & frantic pleasure-seeking were also reactions to the war. Both responses could be seen as rejections of traditional values. 

How was the violence of the war expressed in the arts?

The violence of the war was expressed in futuristic art & by many musical scores that featured violent dissonancel. The Russian Revolution led to daring & highly expressive art, music, & literature. 

How did art become quite fragmented?

there was no real 'norm' to rebel against & the arts, possibly mirroring the break up of society & attitudes that the war had brought, became quite fragmented, with artists following their instincts. Some artists developed neo-classicism; some developed intense expressionism; others developed formalism & retreated from realism.

What theme became a major sub-branch of literature in all countries?

Wartime memoirs became a major sub-branch of literature in all countries.

Who were Erich Marie Remarque & Ernst Junger?

He showed a hostility to war in his book

How was the US involved in the League of Nations even though it was not a member?

Though the US was not a formal member in the League of Nations, it was involved in its activities as an OBSERVER.

What are examples of the peace organizations established in various countries after the war?

The League of Nations Association in Britain

What was a popular idea in some catholic countries?

Corporatism- the belief that a social harmony could arise if all elements of economic life came together to plan progress & avoid conflict. This was put into operation in Italy where the state brought together representatives of employers & workers with the government to discuss economic matters. 

What less positive forms of communal activity developed in Japan & Italy?

Where did the most developed racial community theories emerge?

Among the right-wing nationalist groups in Germany. They had ideas of pure 'Aryan' race, binding together all Nordic peoples with hierarchies of race, placing the purebred Nordic types at the top & the supposedly inferior, 'sub-human' Jews at the bottom. The war did not create these ideas, but the discontent it brought gave them more popularity. 

In what countries did socialist, community-based ideas spread?

China & other Asian countries, as well as in Europe. Left-wing ideas were particularly influential & attractive to the workers & peasants in Spain, in France, with its own revolutionary tradition, & even in Britain, which had a far less socialist & radical history.

Why were reform & reconstruction not implemented in such a way as to fulfill people's hopes & dreams?

Where did the greatest impact of the war on future international issues take place?

The greatest impact of the war on future international issues, which emerged out of changes in empires, took place in Palestine. This had been part of the Ottoman Empire, but in 1920 it was given to Britain to rule as a mandated territory nominally under the control of the League of Nations, together with Iraq & Transjordan. France gained Syria & Lebanon in this division of the Middle East. 

What does the term diaspora refer to?

The dispersal of Jews in many different parts of the world

Who was Theodor Herzl?

An Australian Jew living in Paris who wrote the book entitled, The Jewish State. He was advocating for some place on the earth that would be set aside for Jewish people.

Who were the Zionists?

Thos who advocated for the creation of a Jewish national homeland &, later: an independent state in Palestine.

Who was Chaim Weizmann?

The leader of the British Zionists who worked very hard to win the support of the British government for a Jewish homeland. 

What was the Balfour Declaration, why was it issued, & why was it sent to Lord Rothschild?

What was the Arab Nationalist Manifesto?

It called for independence from Turkey & the unity among the Arabs

What was the turning point in the Arab struggle for independence as well as in the Jewish struggle for a homeland?

The First World War

What was the Arab Revolt, & who was T.E. Lawrence?

In 1916, an Arab army was raised & led by Prince Faisal, the son of the Sharif of Mecca. The army blew up Turkish trains & disrupted the flow of military supplies to the Turkish soldiers. This became known as the Arab Revolt. The activities of this Arab army are well known because in Britain as "Lawrence of Arabia" because he fought with the Arabs. 

What was the Sykes-Picot Agreement?

The Arabs felt that they had fought for their independence from the Turks & now deserved complete self-government. Arab leaders were therefore angered when they hear that Britain & France had secretly agreed, in 1916, to carve up Turkey's Arab lands after the war & share them out between them. This agreement is known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement after the British & the French politicians who made it. 

What does the term mandates refer to in regard to the Treaty of Versailles, which followed the end of the First Wolrd War?

A mandate is an order or command, in this case from the League of Nations, giving Britain & France control of Arab lands previously ruled by Turkey, Britain & France were to prepare the Arab lands for eventual self-government. 

Over what territories was Britain givien mandates, & over what territories was France granted mandates?

Britain was given mandates over Palestine, Transjordan (later known as Jordan), & Iraq. France was granted mandates over Syria & Lebanon. 

What countries became two of the main pillars of Britain's empire in the Middle East after the First World War, & who were their rulers?

Iraq & Transjordan. Their rulers were the two Hashemite princes thus became rulers of the semi-independent Arab states of Iraq & Transjordan. They were Faisal King of Iraq & Abdullah, ruler of Transjordan. 

Why did violence on a massive scale erupt in the town of Jaffa in 1921, & how did British authorities respond?

What was the Haganah, & who was Orde Wingate?

The Haganah was the Jewish Defence Force, & the British helped to train & organize it. Orde Wingate was a British officer who trained Jewish squads to attack Arab villages during the rebellion. He was an effective military leader, but also a very cruel one. 

The Peel Commission recommended the partition of Palestine into two separate states, on Jewish & the other Arab. The Arabs rejected the plan while the Jews wanted more land thean they were allocated under it. 

What was the role of the Jewish Agency in Palestine in the late 1930?

This waws effectively the government of the Jewish population in Palestine.

Who was David Ben-Gurion, what was the official policy of Ben-Guiron & the Jewish Agency, & what did they hope for?

David Ben-Guiron was the leader of the Jewish Agency. He accepted the 1937 plan for the partition of Palestine with independent Jewish & Arab states, but he always had hoped for more. --->He assumed that an independent state would allow for unlimited Jewish immigration, the organization of a powerful army. Ben-Guiron & some other leaders hoped for a Jewish state in all of Palestine. 

What was the Stern Gang, & what impact did they have on British policy?

The Stern Gang was a Jewish terrorist organization. It caused the British government to abandon the idea of partitioning Palestine, after the Stern Gang murdered Lord Moyne, a government minister. 

What was the official Jewish policy in Palestine during World War II, & what policy did the Zionist conference decide on in August 1945?

During the war the official Jewish policy in Palestine was an effort to support the British while continuing to campaign against the White Paper policy of 1939 that had opposed the idea of a separate Jewish state & sought to control immigration. 

What was the Biltmore Declaraiton, & how did Zionists get the US to pressure Britain to agree to separate Jewish state & to leave Palestine?

The American Zionist conference had declared their support for a 'Jewish commonwealth' in all of Palestine. This became know as the Biltmore Declaration after the name of the hotel in New York in which the conference was held. After the war, American Zionists often joined by Jewish leaders from Palestine, launched propoganda offensive: they addressed meetings, held rallies, placed advertisements &, above all, lobbied members of the US government & Congress, in order to win support. In April 1946, the US President, Harry Truman, called on the British government to allow the immediate entry of 100,000 Jewish refugees to Palestine. 6 months later, he came out in support of the partition of Palestine. 

What Jewish terrorist attack took place on July 22, 1946 in Jerusalem?

The attack was on the King David Hotel in Jerusalem. This hotel housed the British military headquarters in Palestine. It was protected by barbed wire, machine guns, & patrolling soldiers. At noon on July 22, 1946, a truck drove up to the entrance of the hotel kitchen, Men dressed as Arabs got out & unloaded their cargo of milk churns containing high explosives or that the 'Arabs' were members of Irgun. At 12:37 pm the explosion tore through the building killing 88 people, including 15 Jews.

What two incidents in the summer of 1947 convinced the British that they should withdrawal from Palestine?

Two incidentes finally convinced the British to withdrawal from Palestine. One was the hanging of two British soldiers in revenge for the execution of 3 Irgun members . The other incident involved a ship called The Exodus which was carrying 4500 refugees from Europe. It was prevented by the British authorites, from landing its passengers in Palestine & was sent back to Europe. This incident attracted widespread publicity, winning much sympathy for the Jewish refugees, & was thus a huge propoganda success for the Zionists.

Why did the British hand over the problems of Palestine to the United Nations in May , 1948?

The British were exhausted after the war, with food shortages & rationing at home, & could hardly afford to keep 100,000 troops & police in Palestine. After 30 years of trying to solve the problems of Palestine, the British government decided that it would hand it over to the United Nations. 

What recommendations of the UN Special Committee on Palestine were accepted by the UN General Assembly in November of 1947?

The main recommendation was to divide Palestine & set both a Jewish & an Arab state. The areas that were not more Jewish in population & land ownership were to be allocated to the Jewish state, & those which were mainly Arab to the Arab state. This resulted in a criss-cross arrangement with "kissing points" at the intersections. The UN fought that this would force the 2 sides to cooperate. The holy city of Jerusalem was to be an international zone governed by an international force. The Jewish agency in Palestine officially accepted the plan despite the exclusion of Jerusalem from the Jewish state.

Who was Menachem Begin, & why did he & David Ben-Guiron object to the UN plan?

Menachem Begin, leader of the Irgun, announced: "The partition of teh homeland is illegal. It will never be recognized. It will not blind the Jewish people. Jerusalem was & will forever be our captial. Eretz Israel will be restored to the people of Israel.All of it. And forever. David Ben-Guiron said: "Tens of thousands of our youth are prepared to lay down their lives for the sake of Jerusalem. It is within the boundaries of the state of Israel just as Tel Aviv is."

What were the aims of the Haganah's Plan D?

In March, the Haganah's came up with the Plan D, the aim of which was to: 

-Take over any installations evacuated by the British, especially military bases. 

-Expel as many Palestinians as possible from the future Jewish state.

Why did many Arabs flee from Palestine in 1948?

By February 1948, many of the Palestine elite, such as landowners & business people had left Palestine. This contributed to feelings of insecurity among the Arab masses, especially in the villages inside what was to become the Jewish state. Nearly all of the villages along the coast from Tel Aviv to Haifa were cleared of theri Arab populations.

What well-known massacre was carried out by Irgun fighters led by Menachem Begin in April of 1948?

In April 1948, Irgun fighters led by Begin, attacked the village of Deir Yassin (which was inside what was to be Arab territory under UN plan) & killed the inhabitants.They said they believed it was Arab headquarters. 

What happened on May 14, 1948, & what happened the next day?

David Ben-Guiron proclaimed the birth of the new state of Israel. The next day armed forces from Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Transjordan & Egypt invaded. The state of Israel was thus born in war & its first aim was survival. 

What major conflict took place during the first phase of fighting on Israel's War of Independence from May 15 to June 10th 1948?

The battle for Jerusalem. King Abdullah of Transjordan moved his Arab Legion to defend the Old City, the Eastern of Jerusalem. His army was the one that he Israelis were keenest to defeat for two main reasons. 1. They wanted to gain control of all of the city of Jerusalem, including the Old City which contained Jewish holy places. 2. they knew that the Legion was the most effective & best-trained Arab army, & they believed that, if they could defeat it, then the other Arab armies would collapse. However, the Israelis were not able to defeat the Legion & the Israelis did gain control of the west Jerusalem without a big struggle & were thus abel to feed & protect the Jewish population in that part of the city.

What peace plan did special UN mediator, Count Bernadotte from Sweden come up with, & what happened to Bernadotte?

It gave added land to the Arabs in the south & more land to the Israelis in teh norht, but Jerusalem was still to be an international city, under UN control & the Arab refugees were all to have the right to return home. The next day, Bernadotte was assassinated by the Stern gang. The new Israeli government was keen to maintain international support & ordered the dissolution of the Stern gange & Irgun. Some of their member were the incorporated in teh Israeli Defense Force. 

To what did the rab term Nakbah refer?

The fight of 700,000 Palestinian Arabs from their homes & the events of 1947-1949 as a whole have become known in Arabic as the "Nakbah," the catastrophe or disaster. 

On what two key issues could no one agreement be reached?

Boarders & Refugees

What were the further obstacles to permanent peace?

First, public opinion in the Arab countries  was intensely bitter over their defeat & their hatred of Israel. Secondly, for the Israeli govenrment peace with its Arab worth the price of givign up any territory or agreeing to this.