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460 BC - 370 BC
"Father of Medicine"
Hippocratic oath (“first do no harm”)
Objectivity: Disease due to natural causes, body can heal itself & physician must refrain from interfering
Prescribed rest, exercise, improved diet, music, socialization
Mind was located in the brain Right brain controls left side of body
Described melancholia, mania, postpartum depression, phobias, paranoia, hysteria
Four humors: Black & yellow bile, blood, phlegm; Imbalance creates disease & affects temperament
Said epilepsy was caused by brain disharmony, not divine intervention |
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(469-399 BC)
Unexamined life is not worth living
Intensive questioning of assumptions
Truth comes not from authority but lies hidden in every mind
Teacher’s role is like a midwife, to help deliver or uncover truth |
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(427-347 BC)
Knowledge derives from processes of reasoning about sensations, not sensations, which can be misleading
Allegory of the cave: Forms vs. sensations
Increase accuracy of knowledge with measurement & deductive reasoning
The Republic: Individuals’ qualities & related body parts should be measured & tasks assigned accordingly |
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(385-322 BC)
3 associative processes of memory:
1. Relative similarity
2. Relative contrast
3. Contiguity
Memory supplemented by frequency & ease
Empiricist
Catharsis
Ladder of creation
Mind located in the heart |
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(1596-1650)
Developed analytical geometry
Advocated a logical, scientific system of thought
BUT most info obtained in haphazard, uncritical & unreliable ways --> doubts about existence of world & self --> “I think, therefore I am”
Dualism of mind & body: follow different laws
Innate vs. derived ideas |
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(1632-1704)
Empiricist
Government as a social contract, Checks & balances in government
Inalienable rights: personal liberty, equality before the law & religious equality
Dignity & worth of the individual: Preamble to Ethics Code
All equal in potential at birth --> education is key
Only innate fears: pain & loss of pleasure --> recommended desensitization procedure for all others
Sources of ideas --> Ideas --> Complex ideas created
Sources of ideas: sensations, reflections, impact of restricted experience, eg. blindness
Ideas: simple (e.g. soft or warm), complex (e.g. soft and warm)
Complex ideas created: Combine simple idea into 1 complex idea, bring 2 simple ideas together and see their relation, separate simple ideas from other ideas that accompany them by process of abstraction |
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(1806-1873)
Raised to be “dry, hard, logical machine”
Had depressive breakdown at age 20 --> increased self-awareness and emphasis on feelings
Lived for many years in threesome with Harriet Taylor & her husband
After Taylor’s death, wrote The Subjection of Women, advocating women’s rights; also argued against slavery
Concerned with the study of scientific processes, metascience, that underlie all sciences
The whole of a complex idea is greater than its parts
Questions:Was a study of the human mind an exact science? If so, what happens to free will? What if actions/behaviors/thoughts could be predicted, even controlled by others?
Utilitarianism: Actions are wrong in proportion to the unhappiness they cause in others |
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(1724-1804)
Nativist
Labeled a priori (known beforehand) & a posteriori (known afterward) knowledge
3 categories of the mind: cognition, affection, & conation (motivation)
Emphasized time & space as natural, critical elements in science
Impossible to conduct true psych experiments: observing mental states inevitably modifies the mental states being observed
Advocated for anthropological observations of people’s behavior |
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Wilhelm Wundt
(Younger Years) |
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(1832-1920)
Well-educated, intellectual, & successful family
Lonely childhood: brother 8 years older, other siblings died in infancy
Few friends
Always shy & reserved, disliked strangers, travel, & new experiences
Distant & cold mother & father
Father died when Wundt was 13, putting financial pressure on family
Wundt forced to pick career, uncle suggested going to med school |
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(1842-1910)
Harvard
“Pope of American Psych”
Initially pursued art
Own psychosomatic illnesses
Philosopher, not lab rat
Examiner of paranormal/psych overlaps through experience & analysis |
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(1860-1944)
Interested in psych following his own drug experimentation
Mental testing
Possibly 1st psych prof ever
U. Penn lab
Columbia: dismissed him after 26 yrs due to writing anti-draft letters to gov’t on Univ. stationery
relative rank, “American Men of Science”
recall
7 journals
APA President 1895
Wechsler Corp.
Student of Wundt, influenced by Galton (eugenicist)
Established lab at UPenn; later moved to Columbia
Used Galton’s measures with students taking his courses (“Freshman Test”)
His student, Clark Wissler, examined data statistically & found no correlation between it & academic performance --> needed to develop tests of more complex mental processes |
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Edward Titchener
(Timeline and Contributions) |
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(1867-1927)
The Dean of American Empirical Psych
Born in Sussex, England; Father died young
1890: Oxford; research influenced by Darwin: comparative psych or ethology (e.g., protective coloration of eggs and palatability of insects)
Ph.D. 1892: Univ. of Leipzig, studied under Wundt
1892-1927: Psychology Professor, Cornell University
1892-1897: Head, Psychology Department, Cornell
1894-1917: Editor, Studies from the Department of Psychology of Cornell University
1894-1917: American Edtor, Mind
1895-1927: Editor, American Journal of Psychology
CONTRIBUTIONS:
Sped the legitimization of the laboratory as part of psych instructions
Accelerated psych’s separation from philosophy
Contributed widely to the American Journal of Psychology
Structuralism: other more flexible systems grew out of dissatisfaction with this system
After his death, his brain was displayed in the Psych Dept. at Cornell
Student of Wundt |
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Hugo Munsterberg
(Timeline and Contributions) |
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(1863-1916)
1863: Born in Danzig, Prussia
Mother died when he was 12, changing him dramatically
Univ. of Leipzig
1883: Attended Wundt’s lectures, began working in his lab; conflicts arose
1885: Ph.D., dissertation on natural adaptation
1887: M.D., Univ. of Heidelberg
1887: Activity of the Will
1887: Established 2nd German psych lab at Univ. of Freiberg
1892: James invited him to come to Harvard to establish a psych lab
1899: President of APA
BIRTH OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Munsterberg: long history of interest in mental illness
Met patients of scientific interest in lab; never paid a fee
Believed in physiological basis of mental illness
Made diagnosis based on his observations of patient’s behavior, interview, answers to question, response to word association test
If not psychotic & of scientific interest, would treat patient; attempted to force his will on pt.
Had them lie down on a couch where they could imagine all the others cured before them
Relied heavily on assurances
Used hypnosis conservatively to facilitate receptivity to suggestions
1909: Psychotherapy
Did not accept Freud’s ideas about the unconscious determinants of mental illness
Feud between Munsterberg & Lightner Witmer
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY CONTRIBUTIONS
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY CONTRIBUTIONS
IN RETROSPECT:
Famous, influential & respected
Friends with famous, wealthy & powerful
“Lost psychologist” after his death
Had advocated for friendship & acceptance between Americans & Germans -->received hate mail when Germans sunk Lusitania in 1915
“Dr. Monsterberg”; accused of being a spy
Died teaching |
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(1867-1956)
1892: PhD with Wundt
Professor at UPenn
1896: First psych clinic, devoted to “helping people”; focused on helping children; first pt. was 14yo boy with difficulty learning to spell; later began training students in it
1907: Founded The Psychological Clinic journal
1908: Founded residential school for care & treatment of retarded & troubled children
1908: Criticized James’ work investigating mysticism; estranged from mainstream psych
1920s: Focused on work with gifted children
WITMER'S IMPACT:
First to enunciate idea that the emerging scientific psychology could be basis of new helping profession
Established and developed first facility to implement this idea—a “psychological clinic,” headed by a psychologist and primarily staffed by psychologists
Proposed the term clinical psychology for the new profession & outlined its original agenda
Through funding & long-time editorship of journal (The Psychological Clinic) specifically intended to be the organ of the new profession, further defined area, publicized it, & attracted young persons to it
Through own activities in performing the kinds of professional activities that he envisaged for clinical psychologists, served as a role model for early members |
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(1856-1939)
Born in Freiberg, Moravia (at the time, part of Austria; now Czech Rep)
1st child of his father Jacob's 3rd wife; Jacob was a wool merchant, hard-working but often poor
Jewish customs & beliefs, his great-grandfather had been a rabbi; later described his attitude toward Judaism as "critically negative" & thought of himself as a "godless Jew"
At 3yo, moved to Vienna; much anti-semitism & struggled financially
Good student, but barred from many professions; chose medicine; attended Univ of Vienna, 1873-1881
Worked 3 years at the Vienna General Hospital
5 mos in the psychiatric clinic of Theodor Meynert: saw his 1st hysterical patients
USE OF DRUGS:
1884: Began to experiment with cocaine, found it relieved his depression & helped him work; "a magical substance"
Proceeded to push it on friends & family; he managed to avoid addiction but some of them were not as lucky
When cocaine addiction started to become widespread, he was censured by his colleagues
Lifelong nicotine addiction; developed arrhythmia & later mouth cancer; had nearly his whole jaw replaced
PRACTICE IN VIENNA
1886: Established a medical practice in Vienna; specialized in treatment of hysteria
First used conventional treatments: baths, massage, electrotherapy, rest
1889: Turned to hypnotism
Became increasingly dissatisfied with hypnotism: not all could be hypnotized, those who could improved to different degrees
Concluded that his relationship with each patient was of greater importance
FREUD & FOLLOWERS
Attracted many followers
Saw self as leader, teacher, prophet
Starting in 1902, group of 5 men met in his waiting room in Vienna each Wednesday evening: the Wednesday Psychoanalytic Society
By 1908, had expanded to 20 members & it became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
1912: Freud developed secret committee of loyal adherents (Rank, Abraham, Eitingon, Jones, Ferenczi, Sachs) to keep watch, ensure purity & orthodoxy --> 1927: merged with board of Int'l Psychoanalytic Assoc.
FREUD IN EXILE
Freud underestimated the Nazis
1933: Psychoanalysis branded as "Jewish science" & banned in Germany; Berlin Psychoanalytic Inst. closed
Many contributed to getting Freud passage out of Austria: Princess Marie Bonaparte, the British Home Secretary, US Secretary of State, President Roosevelt
4 of Freud's 5 sisters were murdered in Nazi death camps
Settled first in Paris, then London, where he was well-received and well-known
His pain from cancer became intolerable; his Dr. administered morphine & he died on 9/22/39 at 83yo |
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(1859-1936)
Son of a rabbi, neurologist, medical practice in Vienna
"Doctor with the Golden Touch" due to success treating hysteria
Close friend & colleague of Freud's
Treated "Fräulein Anna O." & inspired Freud to investigate the treatment of hysteria with the "talking cure" |
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aka Anna O
(1859-1936)
Wealthy, Orthodox Jewish Viennese family
Well-educated, spoke 6 languages, but at 16yo had no more educational opportunities available
Nursed her terminally ill father; began to develop a severe & persistent cough followed by paralysis of certain areas, visual & linguistic problems, mood fluctuations, hallucinations, "time missing"
TREATMENT
Breuer saw her sometimes multiple times a day for several hours & together they would trace her symptoms to certain events in her life
After she spoke of these events she felt better: catharsis, talking cure, chimney sweeping
Reportedly, Breuer's wife demanded that the treatment end
Various reports about whether the sessions were abruptly terminated, whether she had to be hospitalized after, whether Breuer went off on a vacation with his wife that resulted in a child, & whether Bertha then had a hysterical pregnancy & birth (of their love child? Of her own identity?)
Various questions about whether she was abused by her father, her father had been a philanderer, & her mother had suffered from mental illness
Bertha never married; she went on to move to Frankfort, lead the Jewish feminist movement & start the field of social work |
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(1875-1961)
1906: Sent Freud a copy of his book about association tests: started 7 year correspondence
Evolved...Jung was the crown prince and ordained successor
Jung immersed self in mythology, proposed collective unconscious
1914: Their relationship devolved and ended with Jung & his Swiss colleagues being ousted from the psychoanalytic movement |
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(1849-1936)
Born in Russia, son of a E.O. priest, oldest of 11 children (only 5 survived)
Planned to be a priest…until he read Darwin’s Origin of the Species
Influenced by S.P. Botkin, who formulated the theory of nervism
The nervous system regulates most bodily functions & illness is due to the system’s failure to adapt the organism to demands of life, which create stress
1883: Received his MD; often quite poor
1891: Chair of pharmacology at St. Petersburg Military Academy, organize Institute of Experimental Medicine, where conducted research for next 40 yrs |
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(1878-1958)
Aimed to replace earlier concerns about the structure & function of consciousness with the study of behavior; objective study of behavior rather than introspective study of consciousness
Born in SC, 4th of 6 children; mother made him vow at an early age that he’d be a minister
Father left family to live w/ 2 Indian women when Watson was 13; never forgave him
Much trouble in school, engaged in “racial fighting,” one of his favorite pastimes
Went on to attend Furman College, then U. Chicago
EARLY RESEARCH
Trained rats, observed differences in their response to labyrinths based on age & corresponding increase in medullated fibers in the cortex
1902: Suffered a breakdown due to compulsive work habits & subsistence level of existence: depression, worthlessness, anxiety, & insomnia
1903: Earned Chicago’s 1st psych Ph.D.
Found that rats could learn complicated mazes in 30 mins & then repeat them in 10 secs thereafter; operated on them to deprive them of various senses; only difference was if maze was rotated
WATSON'S FIELD STUDIES
Comparative psychologist: performed field studies on gulls, monkeys, chickens, dogs, cats, frogs, & fish
Anticipated Konrad Lorenz’s later reports of what he termed “imprinting” when working with baby gulls
1909: Became editor of Psychological Review
1913: Published detailed outline of his views; intention was to make psychologists choose between his way & the the old way; his points:
1916: At Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic in Baltimore, began series of studies of newborns
Observed in nursery & followed a few after they went home
In total, observed 500 infants
Studied: reflexes & emotional response
Found innate fears did not exist
SEPARATION FROM PSYCHOLOGY
1920: His career was going well
He’d had many affairs (although married to Mary Ickes Watson, a former student), fell in love with his asst., Rosalie Rayner & wrote her many love letters
Mary got a hold of the letters & showed them to her brother, who tried to blackmail Watson & the Rayners; when they refused to pay, he sent the letters to Johns Hopkins
Watson was forced to resign
Could not find another academic position due to the publicity
Divorce judge declared Watson “an expert on misbehavior”
Divorce granted & 10 days later he married Rayner; many friends abandoned him
Decided to pursue advertising |
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1945-75: best known psychologist in the world; modern spokesperson for radical behaviorism; very controversial figure
Ph.D. from Harvard; unhappy with the unscientific approach to psych; wrote his dissertation on behaviorism; incredible confidence; developed the Skinner box, or operant conditioning apparatus
1936: U. of Minnesota
1938: The Behavior of Organisms: described his operant system of behavior in which response consequences are crucial
1940s: Schedules of reinforcement: found that intermittent frequency maintained the frequency of responding: Teaching pigeons
Shaping: powerful procedure for establishing & changing behavior with reinforcement: Operant conditioning
1945: Indiana Univ.; 1948: Harvard
1945: Walden Two depicted utopian community in which operant principles of behavioral control are used to produce a harmonious & happy society
APPLIED RESEARCH
“Heir Conditioners” or air-cribs
Teaching machines for individual classroom learning and immediate reinforcement, vs. what he saw as aversive control procedures
Behavior modification for the mentally ill: believed that many seemingly bizarre behaviors might in fact be orderly responses maintained by powerful reinforcers; saw breaking maladaptive reinforcement contingencies and substituting reinforcement for adaptive responses as twin goals of tx; 2 of his students, Lindsley & Azrin, pioneered behavior modification for psychotic patients
His behaviorism caused the study of mental events to be set aside for some time (at least by experimentalists)
A reaction against introspection
“The behaviorist program and the issues it spawned all but eliminated any serious research in cognitive psychology for 40 years....Perhaps the most important lasting contribution of behaviorism is a set of sophisticated and rigorous techniques and principles for experimental study in all fields of psychology, including cognitive psychology." (Anderson, 1995) |
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(1928-)
Linguist at MIT
1959: Reviewed Skinner’s book Verbal Behavior in the journal Language; seen as turning point in cognitive psych
Argued that language cannot be explained through a stimulus response process as Skinner explained, because this does not account for some of the common facts about language; also it’s more complex than behaviorism would allow
The creative use of language can be better explained as a central process than a peripheral process.
Language is a way to express ideas, and the way that these ideas are turned into language is a cognitive process.
Chomsky's critique stimulated much more interest in the cognitive processes of all types of human activity.
Chomsky: defining psychology as the science of behavior is like defining physics as the science of meter reading
On manufactured consent: The film presents and illustrates Chomsky's and Herman's thesis that corporate media, as profit-driven institutions, tend to serve and further the agendas of the interests of dominant, elite groups in the society. |
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(1920-)
Princeton University, APA President in 1991
1960: Founded Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard
Studies information processing, particularly the capacity of Short-term Memory (STM)
The "Magic Number 7” theory: Suggests that most people can remember 7 plus/minus 2 bits of information using their STM
Recall of information is better when it is chunked together |
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(1913-2007)
1950s: Albert Ellis developed Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) in reaction to his dislike of the inefficiency & indirectness of psychoanalysis; he was also influenced by behaviorists; popularized the ABC model of emotions, later modified to the ABCDE approach
1990s: Renamed it Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy |
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(1921-)
1960s: psychiatrist at U. Penn
Had previously studied and practiced psychoanalysis; designed & carried out a number of experiments to test psychoanalytic concepts of depression; fully expected research would validate these fundamental precepts; surprised to find the opposite
This research led him to begin to look for other ways of conceptualizing depression.
Working with depressed patients, he found that they experienced streams of negative thoughts that seemed to pop up spontaneously. He termed these cognitions “automatic thoughts,” and discovered that their content fell into three categories: negative ideas about themselves, the world and the future.
Created CBT: began helping patients identify and evaluate these thoughts and found that by doing so, patients were able to think more realistically, which led them to feel better emotionally and behave more functionally. |
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(1902-1987)
Worked with troubled children, strongly influenced by philosophy of Otto Rank
1942: Counseling and Psychotherapy: suggested that the client, by establishing a relationship with an understanding, accepting therapist, can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure their life
1946: President of APA
Client-Centered Therapy (1951); Psychotherapy and Personality Change (1954); On Becoming a Person (1961)
1968: Founded the Center for Studies of the Person in La Jolla, CA
Main concepts include: client-centered/person centered counseling/therapy, actualizing tendency, becoming, self, encounter groups, cross-cultural communication, and the Core conditions: Empathy, Unconditional positive regard, Congruence, etc. |
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(1909-1994)
Studied w/ Alfred Adler
1939: The Art of Counseling
Ph.D. at Columbia
Felt that anxiety was the key to selfhood, since it sets us in search of ourselves; emphasized the central role of freedom, choice and responsibility in human existence, and proposed that the authentic self was only experienced when we assert ourselves - take a stand against what we find unacceptable
Outspoken critic of his contemporaries; openly sparred with Rogers in journals: Rogers stated that evil was the result of cultural influences, while May stated that evil was a reflection of evil in ourselves, as well as vice versa
"Life to me, is not a requirement to live out a preordained pattern of goodness, but a challenge coming down through the centuries out of the fact that each of us can throw the lever toward good or toward evil." |
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(1908-1970)
Behaviorist; taught at Columbia, then came in contact w/ recent émigré intellectuals from Europe around WWII
Began to think behaviorism had little bearing on real-world issues
Went to teach at Brandeis
1954: Motivation and Personality
Coined name “Third Force”
Late ‘60s: instigated a Fourth Force, Transpersonal Psychology
1967-68: APA President
Major concepts: self-actualization (a term he borrowed from Goldstein), human motivation and the hierarchy of needs (1943), metaneeds, d-needs and b-needs, peak experiences, etc. |
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(1856-1915)
Quaker, granted entrance to Harvard but then chose to become a machinist; worked way up factory ladder to become supervisor & later consulting engineer
Interested in removing all inefficiency from the workplace; targeted the manual worker, aiming to increase their productivity and decrease their judgment
Scientific management, based on 4 principles:
1. The most efficient way of doing a task should be worked out scientifically;
2. Workers should be carefully selected and trained to do the work in this way;
3. Workers should do their work under the close supervision and control of management and be paid a bonus for doing exactly what they say;
4. Management should take over the planning and thinking part of the work.
Considered the manual worker to be stupid, slow and unintelligent
Removed thought, skill, pride and enjoyment from the work process
Some consequences: unemployment, exploitation, monotony, weakening of trade unions, and ‘over speeding’ |
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(1880-1949)
The Human Relations Approach: being nice to workers will improve their morale and improve their work; “more satisfied a worker is (e.g., in his social relations with his work group) the harder he will work”
Industrial democracy: employee participation that would increase motivation and decrease resistance, “fostering a greater sense of involvement and belonging for workers, and providing workers with opportunities to grow and develop”
The approach was given recognition after the Hawthorne Studies in the 1920s
Designed the Hawthorne Study
SUMMARY OF BELIEFS
Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation, but must be seen as members of a group.
Monetary incentives and good working conditions are less important to the individual than the need to belong to a group.
Informal or unofficial groups formed at work have a strong influence on the behavior of those workers in a group.
Managers must be aware of these 'social needs' and cater for them to ensure that employees collaborate with the official organization rather than work against it.
Mayo's simple instructions to industrial interviewers set a template and remain influential to this day :
The simple rules of interviewing:
1. Give your full attention to the person interviewed, and make it evident that you are doing so.
2. Listen - don't talk.
3. Never argue; never give advice.
4. Listen to: what he wants to say; what he does not want to say; what he can not say without help.
5. As you listen, plot out tentatively and for subsequent correction the pattern that is being set before you. To test, summarize what has been said and present for comment. Always do this with caution - that is, clarify but don't add or twist. |
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(1890-1947)
pronounced lə-VEEN
Jewish, from Prussia (now Poland); moved to Berlin in 1905
Earned his PhD in psych from Univ. of Berlin; part of Gestalt school
Left Germany due to Hitler, emigrated to US, professor at Stanford, Cornell, Univ. of Iowa, then MIT
1946: Received phone call from the Director of the Connecticut State Inter Racial Commission requesting help to find an effective way to combat religious & racial prejudices
Set up a workshop to conduct a 'change' experiment; laid foundations for what is now known as sensitivity training
1947: Led to the establishment of the National Training Laboratories in Bethel, ME
MAJOR AREAS OF RESEARCH
Lewin’s Equation for behavior: B=ƒ(P,E)
Neither nature nor nurture alone can account for individuals' behavior and personalities, but rather that both nature and nurture interact to shape each person
Force field analysis
A framework for looking at the factors (forces) that influence a situation, originally social situations.
It looks at forces that are either driving movement toward a goal (helping forces) or blocking movement toward a goal (hindering forces)
Leadership climates
1. Authoritarian: leader determines policy & is not involved in work
2. Democratic: collective determines policy with assistance from leader
3. Laissez-faire: group determines policy without input from leader
Change process
1. Unfreezing: overcoming inertia and dismantling the existing "mind set"
2. Change occurs: period of confusion & transition
3. Freezing: new mindset is crystallizing and one's comfort level is returning to previous levels |
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(1906-1988)
Born in Turkey; MA at Harvard, Ph.D. at Columbia
Academic appointments: Yale, Univ. of Oklahoma, Penn State
AUTOKINETIC EFFECT: SOCIAL INFLUENCE IN PERCEPTION
In an otherwise totally dark room, a small dot of light is shown on a wall; after a few moments, the dot appears to move, but this effect is entirely inside-the-head, and results from the complete lack of "frame of reference" for the movement
Three participants enter the dark room and watch the light; it appears to move & participants are asked to estimate how far the dot of light moves
Estimates are made out loud, and with repeated trials, each group converges on an estimate (some high, some low, some in-between)
Critical finding : groups found their own level, their own "social norm" of perception. This occurred naturally, without discussion or prompting.
Invited back individually a week later and tested alone in the dark room, participants replicated their original groups' estimates.
This suggests that the influence of the group was informational rather than coercive; because they continued to perceive individually what they had as members of a group, Sherif concluded that they had internalized their original group's way of seeing the world. |
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(1863-1930)
Harvard denied doctorate in 1895, continues to deny to this day
Offered doctorate under Radcliffe in ‘02 but she refused it
Career at Wellesley, 1st psych lab at women’s college; studied sensation, memory, paired associates, & self-psych
President of APA in 1905 (1st woman)
Refused job offer from Columbia to stay with parents |
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Attended Howard, married, then attended Columbia for grad school
l
1940: He was first AA man to earn doctorate in psych from Columbia
1943: She was one of first AA women to earn doctorate in psych from Columbia
Research used dolls of different colors to study children’s attitudes about race; used in Brown v. Board of Ed to end racial segregation in public ed
Founded Northside Center for Child Development in Harlem & Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited
Kenneth was professor at City College & 1st Black president of APA |
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(1895-1954)
No high school; avid reader; enrolled in Lincoln U. at 15yo
Later attended Clark U., studying w/ G. Stanley Hall; left when drafted into service
1920: 1st AA to receive PhD in psych
Taught at Howard & published research on refuting racism & bias in theories used to conclude inferiority of AA
Financial challenges due to white agencies refusing funding |
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Chinese-American, born in Portland, Oregon; PhD from U. of Oregon
Professor of psychology at Columbia’s Teachers College
Co-Founder & 1st President of the Asian American Psychological
Association, past presidents of the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues (Div. 45) and the Society of Counseling Psychology (Div. 17)
Extensive research on multiculturalism, including micro aggressions
1996: Served on Bill Clinton’s President’s Advisory Board on Race |
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The view that certain skills or abilities are 'native' or hard wired into the brain at birth.
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)
-Disagreed with Locke’s assertion that the mind is a blank page
-Believed in eternal inborn truths, a nonempiric ¼ of the mind
-Mind as a block of veined marble-->sculptor’s hand (experience) frees a figure that was always present
-Concept of monads
-Continuum of consciousness-unconsciousness of mental events
David Hume
-Ideas vs. impressions
-Ideas as faint copies of impressions, many of which come from sensations
-Advocated for science of human nature apart from philosophy
-Humans are part of nature & all their products of mental processes should be studied with methods of natural science
David Hartley
-Localized mental faculties to the brain
-Used evidence of TBI
-Proposed that objects in the world act upon sense organs to cause “medullary particles” to vibrate in the nerves of the brain
Immanuel Kant
(see Kant flashcard) |
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The brain has inborn capabilities for learning from the environment but does not contain content such as innate beliefs.
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS
Thomas Hobbes
-Humans were basically aggressive animals which banded together in small groups to protect themselves
-Social proximity increased chances of self-destructive internal aggression within group
-Group integrity sustained by strong, centralized authority
John Locke
(see Locke flashcard)
George Berkeley
-Matter does not exist in & of itself
-Matter exists because it is perceived
-When no human perceives it, still perceived by God
-Nativism vs. Empiricism
-Theorized about vision & depth perception but never tested it |
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Definition
The idea that mental processes operate by the association of one state with its successor states.
Associationism is the theory that the mind is composed of elements -- usually referred to as sensations and ideas -- which are organized by means of various associations.
The idea is first recorded in Plato and Aristotle, especially with regard to the succession of memories.
James Mill
-Recommended democratic government, voted for by males in the society
-Most rigorous education to his son John Stuart; taught him to be a “reasoning machine”
-Sensations --> ideas --> trains or streams of associated ideas |
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Definition
Developed by Titchener
Psychology of mental elements
About the “what” of consciousness: “What is the mind?”
WHAT IT WAS:
The study of the structure of the conscious mind
Analyzing the sum total of mental processes, identifying their elements & showing how they go together
The study of sensation by trained introspection under standard conditions
Study of the generalized mind
WHAT IT EXCLUDED:
Anything that could not be studied using rigidly controlled introspection
Cultural anthropology
Comparative psychology
Child psychology
Study of those who were insane
Not a study of an individual’s mind
PURE PSYCHOLOGY
Titchener’s psych grew increasingly restricted, limited to introspective analysis of human mind
No sympathy for applied bent of his colleagues: Called mental testing “second-rate & cheap,” called educational psych “educational technology,” & saw work on industrial probLems as “trading a science for a technology,”
was proud that his work could not be used to guide those who were mentally ill
“…concerned with the normal, human, adult mind, it is not the science of mental comfort and improvement”
Other areas of study were “impure” because the subjects could not engage in introspection |
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Definition
Psychology of mental operations or functions
About the “how & why” of consciousness: “What is the mind for?”
Describes the operations of the mind & functions of consciousness under actual life conditions
Adaptive: allows people to function & adapt to environmental demands
Active & forever changing: Consciousness cannot be stopped by analysis of its structure --> Moment of consciousness perishes, but mental functions persist
Psychology should study THINKING, not thoughts
Assumes constant interplay between psychological & physical; they are 1
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS
John Dewey
-Studied at Johns Hopkins under Hall, alongside Cattell
-Influenced by Darwin, founded functionalism: emphasized functions & adaptive value of mind & consciousness
-1894: Chair of dept. of philosophy, U. Chicago
-1899: APA president
-1904: Columbia
-Searched for reflex arc to be applied to psych
--Wanted coordinated concept to see psych as a whole, not something looking at atomistic parts
--Criticized stimulus-response & sensation-idea dichotomies that emphasized distinct entities rather than coordinated wholes
--Stressed that responses & ideas always occur in a functional context: e.g. when child reaches for candle, the experience transforms the act so that the child will probably not do it again
--Must understand behavior & consciousness in terms how how they allow the organism to adjust to environment
--Each stimulus happens in a context for each individual (e.g. loud noise) -->psychological events
-Importance of education to give best chance at survival equal education rights
--4 basic needs of sound child education: conversation, curiosity, construction, artistic expression
--Tested his beliefs at lab school
--Led progressive ed movement: teacher’s union
James Rowland Angell
-Took on functionalism after Dewey at U. Chicago
-Psychical research with James, lab work with Munsterberg
-1906: President of APA: address on functional psych
-Influenced by Darwin’s ideas about instinct & evolution of intelligence: experimented with maze-learning in rats
Robert Sessions Woodworth
-Worked with Cattell at Columbia to develop mental testing
-Organizers of 1904 St. Louis Expo requested tests on attendees of many different races: 1100 people tested
-Pointed out scientists desire to categorize & label & use physical characteristics to do so
--Sensory acuity same across races
--Discouraged judging intelligence by a group’s culture
-Developed test of emotional stability for US military to predict shell shock
-1914: APA President: imageless thoughts
Edwards Lee Thorndike
-Harvard: Studies of animal learning & intelligence with chickens
-Columbia: Cats in puzzle boxes
--Trial & error behavior: decreased as cats learned trick to getting out
--Failures to escape box decreased association between behavior & reward & vice versa
--Foundation of concept for learning sets: cats could apply tricks to all other puzzle boxes |
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PSYCHOANALYTIC TECHNIQUES
Began to instruct patients to try to remember events associated with first appearance of hysterical symptoms
Some able to recall & described memories they’d repressed for years; often beneficial
Method of free association: describe everything that comes to mind; described this like an archaeological excavation; first called it “Breuer’s method”
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS
Freud
Josef Breuer
Jean-Martin Charcot
Alfred Adler
Carl Jung
Anna Freud
Karen Horney |
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Aimed to replace earlier concerns about the structure & function of consciousness with the study of behavior; objective study of behavior rather than introspective study of consciousness
WATSON'S BEHAVIORIST MANIFESTO
Psychology had failed to develop as a natural science; no one could agree on a definition of consciousness
Since consciousness cannot be studied, no need for introspection; method was defective & required final authority; must be replaced with objective, experimental methods
No longer need to study the mind, but to study behavior; goals to observe, predict & control behavior
"The cognitive revolution in psychology was a counter-revolution. The first revolution occurred much earlier when a group of experimental psychologists, influenced by Pavlov and other physiologists, proposed to redefine psychology as the science of behavior. They argued that mental events are not publicly observable. The only objective evidence available is, and must be, behavioral. By changing the subject to the study of behavior, psychology could become an objective science based on scientific laws of behavior."
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS
Pavlov
Watson
NEOBEHAVIORISTS
Edward Chance Tolman
Edward Ray Guthrie
Clark Leonard Hull
Skinner |
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Definition
"The cognitive revolution in psychology was a counter-revolution. The first revolution occurred much earlier when a group of experimental psychologists, influenced by Pavlov and other physiologists, proposed to redefine psychology as the science of behavior. They argued that mental events are not publicly observable. The only objective evidence available is, and must be, behavioral. By changing the subject to the study of behavior, psychology could become an objective science based on scientific laws of behavior."
REEMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Following WWII, there was an increase in research on human performance and attention, developments in computer science, especially those in artificial intelligence, and the renewal of interest in the field of linguistics
1948: Claude Shannon wrote paper about Information Theory, proposing that information was communicated by sending a signal through a sequence of stages or transformations
Suggested that human perception and memory might be conceptualized in a similar way: sensory information enters the receptors, then is fed into perceptual analyzers, whose outputs in turn are input to memory systems
Start of the ‘information processing’ approach
This led to a natural return to an examination of cognition and its link to psychology in the years between 1950-1970
At least one source of modern cognitive psychology came from within the field: roots in Gestalt psychology and maintained its focus on the higher mental processes
1956: A Study of Thinking, by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin: Investigated how people learn new concepts and categories & emphasized strategies of learning rather than just associative relations
Proposals fit perfectly with the information-processing approach & offered still another reason to break from behaviorism.
By the early 1960s, behaviorism was on the wane in academic departments all over America (it had never really taken strong root in Europe).
Psychologists interested in the information-processing approach were moving into academia; interdisciplinary departments were forming
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS
Allen Newell
-A mathematician who applied cognitive psychology to the design of computer systems
-Saw cognitive activities as problem solving activities
Noam Chomsky
-See Chomsky flashcard
George Miller
-See Miller flashcard
Albert Bandura
-Experimentalist; concepts included mental phenomena such as imagery, representation, & reciprocal determinism: relationship of mutual influence between an agent & its environment; radical departure from behaviorism & provided psychologists with a practical way in which to theorize about mental processes, in opposition to the mentalistic constructs of psychoanalysis & personology (Henry Murray, TAT) |
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| Cognitive-behavioral psychology |
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Definition
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS
Albert Ellis
-See Ellis flashcard
Aaron Beck
-See Beck flashcard
Maxie C. Maultsby
-1960s: a student of Ellis', developed Rational Behavior Therapy
-Emphasized client rational self-counseling skills and therapeutic homework
-Contributions included his concept of "thought shorthand" (or "attitudes"), Rational Emotive Imagery, Rational Self-Analysis, and the Five Criteria for Rational Behavior
David Burns, MD
-Popularized CBT with his 1980's best-selling book, Feeling Good.
-Stanford Univ.
Third Wave of CBT Therapies
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
Behavioral Activation (BA)
Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP)
Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP)
Integrative Couple Therapy (ICT) |
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| Industrial-organizational psychology |
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Definition
Guion (1965): "the scientific study of the relationship between man and the world of work: ... in the process of making a living" (p. 817).
Blum & Naylor (1968): "simply the application or extension of psychological facts and principles to the problems concerning human beings operating within the context of business and industry" (p. 4).
I–O psychology has historically subsumed two broad areas of study, as evident by its name, although this distinction is largely artificial and many topics cut across both areas.
It has roots in social psychology; organizational psychologists examine the role of the work environment in performance and other outcomes including job satisfaction and health
Sometimes, I–O psychology is considered a sister field or branch of organizational studies, organizational science, organizational behavior, human resources, and/or management, but there is no universally accepted classification system for these related fields.
Organizational psychology gained prominence after World War II, influenced by the Hawthorne Studies & the work of researchers such as Kurt Lewin & Muzafer Sherif.
ISSUES INCLUDED IN I-O PSYCHOLOGY:
Job performance
Job analysis/competency modeling
Personnel recruitment and selection
Student/educational selection and assessment
Judgment and decision making
Performance appraisal/management
Individual assessment (knowledge, skills, and ability testing, personality assessment, work sample tests, assessment centers)
Psychometrics
Compensation
Training and training evaluation
Employment law
Work motivation
Job attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, commitment, organizational citizenship, and retaliation)
Occupational health and safety
Work/life balance
Human factors and decision making
Organizational culture/climate
Organizational surveys
Leadership and executive coaching
Ethics
Diversity
Job design
Human resources
Organizational development (OD)
Organizational Research Methods
Technology in the workplace
Group/team performance
Team composition
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS:
Hugo Munsterberg
Frederick Winslow Taylor
Elton Mayo
Kurt Lewin
Muzafer Sherif |
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Definition
Off-shoot of existentialism as a philosophy
First crystallized by Otto Rank, Freud’s close associate
Ludwig Binswanger was influenced by Freud, Edmund Husserl, Heidegger, & Sartre
A later figure was Viktor Frankl, who briefly met Freud & studied with Jung; his logotherapy can be regarded as a form of existentialist therapy, which is based on premise that it is the striving to find a meaning in one's life that is the primary, most powerful motivating and driving force in humans (vs. pleasure [Freud] or power [Nietzsche])
Irvin Yalom:
“Aside from their reaction against Freud's mechanistic, deterministic model of the mind and their assumption of a phenomenological approach in therapy, the existentialist analysts have little in common and have never been regarded as a cohesive ideological school. These thinkers - who include Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, Eugene Minkowski, V.E. Gebsattel, Roland Kuhn, G. Caruso, F.T. Buytendijk, G. Bally and Victor Frankl - were almost entirely unknown to the American psychotherapeutic community until Rollo May's highly influential 1985 book Existence - and especially his introductory essay - introduced their work into this country.” |
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First half of 20th century was dominated by psychoanalysis and behaviorism; humanistic psych emerged during the second half of the century (1950s)
Theoretical perspective emphasized conscious experiences & human
A value orientation that holds a hopeful, constructive view of human beings and of their substantial capacity to be self-determining; guided by a conviction that intentionality and ethical values are strong psychological forces, among the basic determinants of human behavior; effort to enhance such distinctly human qualities as choice, creativity, the interaction of the body, mind and spirit, and the capacity to become more aware, free, responsible, life-affirming and trustworthy
Developed in the context of the tertiary sector (service industry) beginning to produce in the most developed countries in the world more than the secondary sector (production) was producing, for the first time in human history demanding creativity & new understanding of human capital; post-industrial society
Adopts a holistic approach to human existence through investigations of creativity, free will, and human potential; it believes that people are inherently good.
Has its roots in phenomenological & existentialist thought; also influenced by Eastern philosophy & philosophies of personalism
Cofounders of movement: Carl Rogers, Rollo May, Abraham Maslow
1985: Rollo May integrated the Humanistic & Existential traditions |
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Term
William Wundt
(Early Career) |
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Definition
University of Heidelberg; Dissertation: Touch sensitivity of hysterical patients; first steps toward experimental work in psych
Self-experimentation in study of restricted salt intake; published & pursued academic & research career
Became teacher of sensory physiology & anthropology under Hermann von Helmholtz
Wrote first book: Contributions Toward a Theory of Sense Perception (1862); outlined a program of psychology |
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Term
| William Wundt's View of Psychology |
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Definition
Three Branches
1) Experimental
2) Products of highest mental processes examined via historical literature & naturalistic observations
3) Scientific metaphysics: develop coherent theory of universe |
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Definition
Established in 1879 at University of Leipzig
Emphasized "new science" was to be objective & experimental; used experimental techniques analogous to physiology
Goal: to study conscious processes or "immediate experience"
Examined: reaction times, word associations, sensation & perception, attention, feeling (pleasure vs. displeasure)
Subjects were valuable, highly trained, more important than experimenter |
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Definition
William James: Harvard, "pope of American psych”
Emil Kraepelin: identified dementia praecox
Viktor Henri: Stanford-Binet co- creator
James McKeen Cattell (1886): Columbia Univ., 7 journals, APA President
G. Stanley Hall: James’ student first, Clark Univ., 1st psych PhD in US, 1st US psych journal, child study movement
16 Americans received their degrees with Wundt; 10 later returned to US & started psych labs
Most built careers in education, business & mental testing |
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Term
| William Wundt's Areas of Research |
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Definition
(1) natural sciences
(2) psychology:
(a) General and experimental psychology”
(b) “Volkerpsychologie (cultural-historical psych)
(3) philosophy
(4) pedagogy
(5) history of sciences
(6) literary critique
(7) politics
(8) collected works
(9) edited journals and books |
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| William Wundt's Place in History |
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Definition
Collection of appraisals by his students published in Psychological Review in 1921 following his death
WWI had just concluded; Wundt had been outspoken about the war: blamed England for instigating, extolled virtues of German culture, argued that a higher group ethic existed that needed protection, signed manifesto proclaiming invasion of Belgium an act of self defense
Many found it convenient to forget their German training
APA acknowledged him in centennial celebration of the development of psych in 1979 |
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Term
| William Wundt's Influence on his Students |
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Definition
Scientific ethics
Clear & stimulating lectures
Flexibility regarding students’ research topics
Facilitated academic progress of students
Studies of instrumentation
Lab design & methodology
Anticipator or originator of subfields, models, & approaches
Imbued students with scientific attitude that allowed them to frame questions in ways that created the science of the mind that most predecessors claimed would never be possible
Still, some were more critical & less praising…. |
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Definition
Philosophische Studien (Philosophical Studies)
published from 1882-1903
Renamed Psycholo-gische Studien (Psychological Studies) in 1904
Continued to be published under this title until 1918
Revealed his views on the relationship between philosophy and psychology; emphasized that psychology was a part of philosophy |
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Definition
DEFINITION
A rigorous, demanding technique of disinterested, experimental self-observation that Titchener learned from Wundt
Process of observing, interrogating, and describing mental processes in terms of observed facts
Recommended 10,000 controlled introspections before one could be a suitable source of data for published reports
“Stimulus error”: when one described the event itself (“I saw a green light,” a mediate interpretation) rather than the mental processes involved (an immediate experience)
Consist only of sensations, images, and feelings
Learned only from being trained by an expert, i.e. Titchener
CRITICISMS
Always retrospections, happening up to 20 mins after experience, allowing for possibility of distortion
Remote from consciousness; dull & no functional value
As conscious process, must interfere with consciousness it aims to observe
Boring, not enlightening |
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Hugo Munsterberg
(Forensic Psychology Contributions) |
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Definition
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY CONTRIBUTIONS
From 1908: Wrote numerous articles & a book (On the Witness Stand) about using psych info in legal situations
Explained the problems with eyewitness testimony & why they often differed
Objective vs. subjective truth
Demonstrated deception of senses, how suggestions affect perceptions, unreliability of memories
Advocated for jury system, as long as women were not involved
Scorned adversary legal system --> legal backlash -->hurt the development of field |
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Hugo Munsterberg
(Industrial Psychology) |
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Definition
Industrial Psychology
1913: Wrote Psychology and Industrial Efficiency
Examined 1) the best possible man for the job, 2) the best possible work, or factors affecting efficiency, 3) the best possible effect, concerning marketing, sales & advertising techniques
Self-report measures of vocational interest, “tasks in mini-ature” (simulations) to test capacity of job & predict performance, series of tests developed for specific psych function required by a job
Effects of advertising; must be used responsibly |
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Term
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Definition
1895: Published with Breuer a study of Anna O. & 4 other patients
Their views began to diverge: Breuer saw catharsis as key, Freud saw more significance in the patient-therapist relationship
Freud: therapist seen as “father, lover, confessor, friend, rival, villain, and hero, calling up emotions for these changing perceptions of the therapist from previous relationships to important people in her life” à transference & countertransference; developed more fully in case of “Dora”
Freud believed Anna O. had transferred her feelings for her father onto Breuer, & Breuer had countertransfered his feelings back to her
Breuer could not accept Freud’s analysis: their friendship ended |
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Definition
1895: Developed by Freud in his relationship with Wilhelm Fliess (1858-1928); penned hundreds of letters back & forth until 1904, when their relationship cooled
Freud wrote that he believed hysterical & obsessional neuroses resulted from unconscious memories of sexual pleasure & excitation in childhood; “presexual sexual shock”
1896: Presented 18 fully analyzed cases to Vienna Society of Psychiatry & Neurology demonstrating sexual shock & asserting that hysterical symptoms were symbolic representations of these; before analysis, patients knew nothing of these events; often perpetuated by nursemaids, teachers, older children & strangers, but fathers began to figure more frequently into the seduction of daughters
Others saw this as "fairy tale" & raised legit concerns, eg the suggestibility of hysterical patients
1897: Freud admitted to Fliess that he'd changed his mind; only told everyone else in 1905 in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality; redefined these "experiences" as "fantasies"; seduction became self-seduction |
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Term
| The Interpretation of Dreams |
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Definition
Freud saw dreams as the "royal road" to the unconscious, an invaluable tool in probing the unconscious mind
Distinguished between manifest content (events, situations, people dreamt about) and latent content (underlying meaning of the elements)
Latent content: repressed wishes & desires
1900: Published The Interpretation of Dreams, but did not go over well initially; gained popularity later, with 8th printing in Freud's lifetime |
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Term
| Freud's Theory of Personality Development |
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Definition
Early 1900s: Developed his psychosexual theory of personality development
Everyone passes through oral, anal, phallic, latent,& genital stages, each characterized by conflict between gratification of instincts & limitations of external world
Too much or too little satisfaction at each stage may cause difficulty moving on to next: fixation
Oedipus complex & Electra complex; later argued against analogous development of sexes & proposed castration complex in girls
Suggested 3 lines of development for girls : 1) revulsion against sexuality, 2) hope of obtaining penis, "masculinity complex," may lead to homosexuality, 3) surmounts pre-Oedipal attachment to mother & takes father as love object, develops "feminine" sexual orientation |
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Term
| Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments |
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Definition
Sought to find “windows” into functioning physiological systems
Operated on animals & developed stringent surgical procedures modeled on those used in humans; never lost an animal in surgery
Created “Pavlov pouch,” small stomach pouch in dog by which he could monitor the flow of gastric juices not contaminated by food; collected juices in tubes & sold them
Realized eating food wasn’t the cue for the juices to flow, often started when simply saw food: “psychical reflex”
Set up experiments to pair conditioned stimuli (CS) with food & found that they could elicit salivation without food: conditioned reflex (CR); found a secondary CS could elicit same response if paired with 1st CS
Coworker Tolochinov discovered concept of extinction, process of weakened pairing between CS & food
But his subjects weren’t just dogs…. (See “History of the Brain”) |
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Definition
Found that dogs could become neurotic if confused enough by stimuli or subjected to trauma (after a flood)
1925: Mariia Petrova started research pairing food & electric shock, causing dogs to become conflicted over their natural response to food; attempted to treat neurosis with sodium bromide; worked in more excitable dog, not in more subdued dog
At age of 75, Pavlov decided to study human clinical disorders; spent last 10 yrs of life trying to apply his research to humans |
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Term
| Pavlov on Individual Differences |
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Definition
Found great variety in his experimental dogs’ responses to the research
Described 4 types of dogs:
Sanguine: strong, lively, active, conditioned quickly, generalized extensively, calm business-like approach, excitation & inhibition in balance
Melancholic: slow, depressed, conditioned slowly, poor generalization & discrimination, inhibition dominated
Choleric: unstable, impetuous, conditioned quickly & generalized widely, difficulty with discriminations, little resistance to experimental neurosis, excessive excitation
Phlegmatic: inert & slothful, conditioned slowly, poor generalization & discrimination, resistant to experimental neurosis, dominant inhibition
Found Sanguine & Melancholic to be most common types
Believed in genetic basis but also noticed environmental influence: dogs raised in individual cages were afraid of everything vs. dogs allowed almost total freedom |
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Term
| Watson's Behaviorist Manifesto |
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Definition
Psychology had failed to develop as a natural science; no one could agree on a definition of consciousness
Since consciousness cannot be studied, no need for introspection; method was defective & required final authority; must be replaced with objective, experimental methods
No longer need to study the mind, but to study behavior; goals to observe, predict & control behavior |
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Term
| Watson's Views on Child Care, Nature Vs. Nurture |
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Definition
NATURE VS. NURTURE
Initially believed in certain instinct behaviors (hunting, fighting, maternal care, etc.)
1924: insisted there were no instincts, only habits
Stated he could mold any child into whatever he wanted
Sadly, his own sons did not fare well in adulthood: one entered psychoanalysis after Watson's death, the other, a chronic alcoholic, committed suicide
CHILD CARE
1928: Psychological Care of Infant and Child
"There is a sensible way of treating children. Treat them as though they were young adults. Dress them, bathe them with care and circumspection. Let your behavior always be objective and kindly firm. Never hug or kiss them, never let them sit on your lap. If you must, kiss them on the forehead when they say goodnight. Shake hands with them in the morning. Give them a pat on the head if they make an extraordinarily good job of a difficult task."
No, they didn't treat their children this way.
He later stated that it wasn't really the book he meant to right. Generations of mothers flayed him for it. |
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Definition
Watson & Little Albert
Along w/ Rosalie Rayner, Vassar student, chose Albert B. because of his “stolid temperament”
11-month-old son of hospital wet nurse
Conditioned fear of white rats w/ loud noise; only 7 pairings required; generalized fear response to rabbit, dog, cotton, & sealskin coat |
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Term
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Definition
Developed by Carl Rogers
1. All individuals (organisms) exist in a continually changing world of experience (phenomenal field) of which they are the center.
2. The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is "reality" for the individual.
3. The organism reacts as an organized whole to this phenomenal field.
4. A portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as the self.
5. As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of evaluational interaction with others, the structure of the self is formed - an organized, fluid but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the "I" or the "me", together with values attached to these concepts.
6. The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism.
7. The best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the internal frame of reference of the individual.
8. Behavior is basically the goal-directed attempt of the organism to satisfy its needs as experienced, in the field as perceived.
9. Emotion accompanies, and in general facilitates, such goal directed behavior, the kind of emotion being related to the perceived significance of the behavior for the maintenance and enhancement of the organism.
10. The values attached to experiences, and the values that are a part of the self-structure, in some instances, are values experienced directly by the organism, and in some instances are values introjected or taken over from others, but perceived in distorted fashion, as if they had been experienced directly.
11. As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either, a) symbolized, perceived and organized into some relation to the self, b) ignored because there is no perceived relationship to the self structure, c) denied symbolization or given distorted symbolization because the experience is inconsistent with the structure of the self.
12. Most of the ways of behaving that are adopted by the organism are those that are consistent with the concept of self.
13. In some instances, behavior may be brought about by organic experiences and needs which have not been symbolized. Such behavior may be inconsistent with the structure of the self but in such instances the behavior is not "owned" by the individual.
14. Psychological adjustment exists when the concept of the self is such that all the sensory and visceral experiences of the organism are, or may be, assimilated on a symbolic level into a consistent relationship with the concept of self.
15. Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies awareness of significant sensory and visceral experiences, which consequently are not symbolized and organized into the gestalt of the self structure. When this situation exists, there is a basic or potential psychological tension.
16. Any experience which is inconsistent with the organization of the structure of the self may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these perceptions there are, the more rigidly the self structure is organized to maintain itself.
17. Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete absence of threat to the self structure, experiences which are inconsistent with it may be perceived and examined, and the structure of self revised to assimilate and include such experiences.
18. When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated system all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is necessarily more understanding of others and is more accepting of others as separate individuals.
19. As the individual perceives and accepts into his self structure more of his organic experiences, he finds that he is replacing his present value system - based extensively on introjections which have been distortedly symbolized - with a continuing organismic valuing process. |
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Term
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Definition
Created by Maslow
(top to bottom)
Peak Experiences
Self-Actualization
Psychological Needs
Safety Needs (comfort)
Basic Needs (survival) |
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Term
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Definition
1927-1932: Studies carried out by Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Chicago, initially to study optimal lighting levels for workers
Designed by Mayo & Warner of Harvard to study the social effects
Mayo wanted to study the effect of fatigue & monotony of work productivity but stumbled upon the principle of human motivation which would revolutionize the theory & practice of mgmt
Background: During the early part of the century, American businesses used Taylor’s Scientific Management
Companies routinely studied the effects of the physical environment on their workers
RELAY ASSEMBLY EXPERIMENT
Experimenters chose 2 women as test subjects & asked them to choose 4 other workers to join the test group; together the women worked n a separate room over the course of 5 years assembling telephone relays
Output was measured mechanically by counting how many finished relays each worker dropped down a chute; measuring began in secret two weeks before moving the women to an experiment room & continued throughout the study
In the experiment room, a supervisor discussed changes with them & at times used their suggestions.
Researchers measured how different variables impacted the group's and individuals' productivity, including:
Giving two 5-minute breaks (after a discussion with them on the best length of time), and then changing to two 10-minute breaks (not their preference).
Productivity increased, but when they received six 5-minute rests, they disliked it and reduced output.
Providing food during the breaks
Shortening the day by 30 minutes (output went up); shortening it more (output per hour went up, but overall output decreased); returning to the first condition (where output peaked).
Changing a variable usually increased productivity, even if the variable was just a change back to the original condition; the natural process of the human being to adapt to the environment without knowing the objective of the experiment occurring? Researchers concluded that the workers worked harder because they thought that they were being monitored individually.
INITIAL FINDINGS
The experimenter effect:
making changes was interpreter by workers as a sign that mgmt cared
generally provided mental stimulation that was good for morale & productivity
A social effect:
By being separated from the rest & being given special treatment, the experimentees developed a certain bond & camaraderie that also increased productivity
Being able to pick co-workers improved morale
SECOND PHASE OF STUDY: BANK WIRING ROOM
Put 14 male workers in a special room & placed an observer F/T in the room to record everything that happened
Job: assembling telephone switching equipment; 3 tasks: wiring, soldering & inspection
Initially, workers would not talk openly in front of the observer; took 3 weeks for normal behavior to resume (e.g., talking, fighting, playing games, binging, teasing, job trading, helping, etc.)
OUTCOME OF BANK WIRING ROOM:
Looked at social organization & performance variables (quality & amount of work)
Paid by amount…but did not raise outputs; if someone tried, would be given flak by others
Feared that increased productivity would change base rate required by company
Social differences in status & cliques:
Back 3 wiremen worked on selectors rather than connectors, which were easier & had lower status
Inspectors were more educated & slightly higher status, but were considered outsiders and were not allowed to mess with the windows
Functions of group’s internal organization:
1. Protect the group from internal indiscretions
2. Protect it from outside interference
Used sarcasm & ridicule to pressure people who deviated from norms; could arrange their work in such a way as to overwhelm an inspector, then be “forced” to do nothing while waiting for him
Adjusted their reports of how much was done so as to appear that the output was uniform; were afraid of inviting any changes; not based on any experience they had had
Just as management tries to control worker behavior by adjusting piece rates, hours of work, etc., the workers try to adjust management toward goals that are not necessarily economically rational |
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Term
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Definition
The Origin of Prejudice in Social Groups
Conducted by Muzafer Sherif
A series of experiments, begun in Connecticut and concluded in Oklahoma, that took boys from intact middle-class families, who were carefully screened to be psychologically normal, delivered them to a summer camp setting (with researchers doubling as counselors) and created social groups that came into conflict with each other (the Rattlers vs. the Eagles).
3 phases:
1. Group formation, in which the members of groups got to know each others, social norms developed, leadership and structure emerged,
2. Group conflict, in which the now-formed groups came into contact with each other, competing in games and challenges, and competing for control of territory
3. Conflict resolution, where Sherif and colleagues tried various means of reducing the animosity and low-level violence between the groups.
Sherif showed that superordinate goals (goals so large that it requires more than one group to achieve the goal) reduced conflict significantly more effectively than other strategies (e.g., communication, contact) |
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Term
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Definition
How is the philosophy of the mind related to psychology?
Philosophical science:
1) study of knowledge
2) study of principles
General study of metaphysics: general philosophy of mind/philosophical psych
Special study of principles encompassing philosophy of nature & of the mind: particular mental creations such as ethics, law, aesthetics, philosophy of religion
Philosophy needs psychology as fundamental mental science
Philosophy connects everything & creates a classification system |
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Term
| 3 Governing Principles of the Psychological Position |
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Definition
1. Inner, or psychological, experience is not a special sphere of experience apart from others, but is immediate experience in its totality.
2. This immediate experience is not made up of unchanging contents, but of an interconnection of processes; not of objects, but of occurrences, of universal human experiences and their relations in accordance with certain laws.
3. Each of these processes contains an objective content and a subjective process, thus including the general conditions both of all knowledge and of all practical human activity. |
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Term
| 3-fold attitude of psychology toward the other sciences |
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Definition
1. As the science of immediate experience, it is supplementary to the natural sciences, which, in consequence of their abstraction from the subjects, have to do only with the objective, mediate contents of experience. Any particular fact can, strictly speaking, be understood in its full significance after it has been subjected to the analyses of both natural sciences and psychology. In this sense, then, physics and physiology are auxiliary to psychology, and the latter is, in turn, supplementary to the natural sciences.
Thus, psychology is in relation to natural sciences the supplementary.
2. As the science of the universal forms of immediate human experience and their combination in accordance with certain laws, it is the foundation of the mental sciences. The subject-matter of these sciences is in all cases the activities proceeding from immediate human experiences, and their effects. Since psychology has for its problem the investigation of the forms and laws of these activities, it is at once the most general mental science, and the foundation for all the others, such as philology, history, political economy, jurisprudence, and so forth.
Thus, psychology in relation to the mental sciences is fundamental.
3. Because psychology pays equal attention to both the subjective and objective conditions that underlie not only theoretical knowledge, but practical activity as well, and because it seeks to determine their interrelation, it is the empirical discipline whose results are most immediately useful in the investigation of the general problems of the theory of knowledge and ethics, the two foundations of philosophy.
Thus, psychology in relation to philosophy is the propaedeutic empirical science. |
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