Term
Jewish claims to Palestine
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Definition
| – The Jewish claims to Palestine were threefold. The claims were Biblical and historical, as the region of Palestine was the site of the ancient Kingdom of Israel. The claims were also pragmatic, with Zionists arguing that Jews needed a safe haven from the rampant anti-Semitism in Europe and North America. |
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Term
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Definition
| – Arabs also made a historical claim to Palestine, because they had inhabited the region for thousands of years. Their claims were also based on the demographics of the regions, because they constituted the majority of the population in the region. |
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Term
Palestine under Ottoman rule
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Definition
| – Under the Ottomans, there was no official Palestine; it was merely another millet in the millet system. |
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Term
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Definition
| – A movement that emerged in the latter part of the 19th century that sought a homeland in Palestine for the Jewish people as a means of avoiding the anti-Semitism in Europe (specifically the Jewish pogroms in Russia and persecution in Germany). In 1897 Theodor Herzl (the leader of the movement) founded the World Zionist Organization to establish “a national home for the Jewish people.” There were several kinds of Zionism. There was Labor (a nationalist and socialist oriented) Zionism that advocated Kibbutzim and worked through the Haganah, a Jewish trade union in Palestine, it would become the Labor Party. The Revisionist Movement, led byVladimir Jabotinsky, was a more militant form that sought a larger part of the region for inclusion into Israel, seeking expansion east of the Jordan River. Followers of Jabotinsky would form the militant force Irgun. Religious Zionism developed later. “Left-Wing” Zionists were more willing to compromise than the Labor Party. |
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Term
Husayn-MacMahon Correspondence (1915-1916)
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Definition
| – These letters exchanged between Sharif Husayn, the amir of Mecca, and Henry MacMahon, the British High Commissioner for the region. In these letters, MacMahon promised Husayn an independent Arab kingdom in the region if he would revolt against the Ottomans and force them out of WWI. |
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Term
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Definition
| – The Amir of Mecca, which was a very prestigious title in the Ottoman Empire. It meant he was the overseer of all the Arab-Islamic regions of the empire. He entered into correspondence with the British, agreeing to begin the Arab Revolt in exchange for a promised kingdom in the region. He is a controversial, seen as a traitor by some. |
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Term
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Definition
| – a declaration made in 1917 that promised Palestine would be the national home of the Jewish people. One of three contradictory promises made by the British in the region during the era. |
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Term
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Definition
| – A secret agreement reached between the French and the British in 1916. This agreement outlined the division of the Fertile Crescent between the French and British. Spheres of influence were established in the former Ottoman lands. Britain received Jordan and southern Iraq, while France was given parts of Anatolia, Syria, Lebanon |
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Term
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Definition
| – A Polish man who immigrated to Palestine in 1906. He became highly influential in the labor Zionist circle. He became the first Prime Minister of Israel in 1948. He advocated against retaliation against Palestinian attacks, and would lead Israeli forces in the 1948 War. |
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Term
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Definition
| – a meeting in 1920 of Syrian nationalists. They declared Syria sovereign and free, and also elected Faysal the king of “Greater Syria.” This brief period of independence was ended when French forces attacked and placed the French Mandate in power as a result of the Conference of San Remo. |
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Term
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Definition
| – The son of Sharif Husayn, he commanded the Arab forces during the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans. He was elected king of Greater Syria in 1920, but after the French seized power he was exiled to London. Later, when the British sought a leader in Iraq that would be respected by Arabs and compliant to British desires, they chose Faysal as king in 1921. He occupied a precarious political position, but managed to do so very well and achieved a high degree of autonomy for Iraq. He died in 1933, and his son Faysal II succeeded him. |
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Term
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Definition
| – an international conference held in 1920 pertaining to the division of Ottoman territories after WWI. It granted spheres of influence in southern Anatolia, Syria, and Lebanon to France. Britain was granted a mandate in Iraq and Palestine. The creation if Iraq combined three Ottoman provinces with little in common. The country of Transjordan was also created. |
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Term
Separation of Lebanon from “Greater Syria” à Future Implications
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Definition
| – Lebanon was created by the French in 1920 with the goal of ensuring the safety of the Maronite Christian community from absorption into Syria. It was created to make Christians the dominant political power in a region, even though they were not the majority of the population. This would lead to a large amount of turmoil in Lebanon. |
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Term
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Definition
| – The policy executed by the French Mandate over their holdings in the Middle East. Through this policy, they sought to prolong their rule. In practice, the various countries they held were divided up based on pre existing religious and ethnic differences. This policy, instead of promoting national unity, would lead to further regional and ethnic fragmentation, resulting in decades of turmoil in the region. |
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Term
Legacy of French colonialism in Syria
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Definition
| – French colonialism in Syria would leave disarray. The French created “arbitrary borders”, creating borders and nations that had no historical precedent. Syria did benefit from French investment in agriculture, infrastructure, and urban planning. However, their rule was authoritarian in nature, and the economy was dominated by French interests. Also, French culture and language dominated the public arena, and their promotion of sectarianism created political structures based on ethnic/religious differences. |
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Term
Franco-Syrian Treaty (1936)
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Definition
| – After years of political turmoil and open revolt, the National Bloc in Syria and the French agreed to this treaty in 1936. It granted Syria independence, but allowed France to maintain military bases and to protect Syria if its sovereignty was threatened. However, when the French government backing the treaty collapsed in 1938, and Syria never realized its independence. |
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Term
National Bloc/ al-Kuwwatli
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Definition
| – The focal point for the Syrian Mandate after the revolt in Syria that ended in 1927. It was made up of primarily former Ottoman authority figures who had survived by practicing honorable cooperation. They did this by voicing anti-French sentiments, yet also convincing the French that they could control the variety of interests in the mandate. Because of the unrest in Syria, the French were willing to work with the National bloc. They were responsible for drawing up a constitution (heavily influenced by French legal code) in 1929. Al-Kuwattli was elected president of Syria in 1943, and they gained independence in 1946. |
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Term
The UN Partition Plan (1947)
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Definition
| – After Britain leaves Palestine post WWII, the UN takes control and divides up Palestine to settle Arab-Israeli conflict. The plan gave 56% of the Palestine to the Jews and 43% to the Arabs. Israeli leaders widely accepted the partition, but Arabs were very against it. |
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Term
The establishment of the state of Israel
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Definition
| - Declared formally on May 15th, 1948. |
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Term
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Definition
| – Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Jordan all declared war on Israel as a result of their declaration of statehood. The result was an overwhelming Israeli victory, and they expanded, eliminating the Palestinian Arab state. As a result, around 700,000 Palestinians became refugees, and they also became very mistrustful of their fellow Arabs, whom they saw as selling them out or failing to aid them. Jewish forces also occupied territories beyond UN partition, Jordan acquired the West Bank; Egypt got Gaza. |
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Term
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Definition
| – Egypt, Syria, and Jordan attacked Israel and once again the result was an overwhelming Israeli victory. It resulted in the Israelis occupying the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Nationalist regimes in Egypt and Syria were discredited by the defeat, and around 300,000 more Palestinians became refugees. |
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Term
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Definition
| – The West Bank and Gaza strip, acquired by Israel in the 1967 War. They were overwhelmingly crowded by Palestinians, though many Israelis believed they had a biblical claim to the territories, so they began settling the areas with kibbutz. They existed in a state of limbo until the Likud Party endorsed Israeli settlement in 1977. |
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Term
U.S. Policy objectives in Mid. East.
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Definition
| – The United States, protecting its oil and economic interests, supported the three major democracies in the region. They supported Israel, Turkey, and Iran with the hopes of turning the region against the Soviets. |
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Term
PLO and Palestinian Resistance
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Definition
| – After the failure of the Arab states in the 1967 War, Palestinians formed their own resistances movements, believing that only they could deliver themselves a free state. The PLO was an umbrella organization for all of the various Palestinian resistance movements. Fatah (the party of Yassir Arafat) was a nationalist group that eventually became the leadership of the PLO movement. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PLFP) was a pro-Nasser group. TheDemocratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) was to the left of Fatah. ThePalestinian Peoples Party (PPP) existed in the occupied territories, and emerged out of the former Communist Party. Earlier on, there were no Islamic based groups. The PLO existed in Jordan during the 1960s, struggling with Israel and King Hussein of Jordan over the fate of the West Bank. In the 1970s, they were forced into Lebanon and the Beka’a Valley. |
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Term
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Definition
| – in September of 1970 a Palestinian terrorist group known as Black September entered the Olympic Village in Munich and took the Israeli team hostage. Some were executed, but eventually all of the hostages died. This made the PLO a black sheep, leading to their exile into Lebanon. |
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Term
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Definition
| – After the 1948 and 1967 wars, there were some 500,000 Palestinian refugees in the occupied territories. They lived in one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and had no state so they were unable to travel. They lived in poor conditions, and expressed their voice through the PLO. The refugees in Lebanon placed the relationship btwn. Israel and Lebanon in a precarious position, leading to the civil war and Israeli invasion. |
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Term
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Definition
| – a series of meetings between Israel and Egypt in 1978. The first agreement created peace between Israel and Egypt, and the second agreement established a timeline for the establishment of an autonomous Palestine according to the UN Resolution 242 within 5 years of signing. However, this second agreement was never implemented. These meetings resulted in Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab League and the breaking of diplomatic relations with most Arab states, as well as oil embargoes. This led to discontent in Egypt, spawning Islamic radicalism. |
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Term
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Definition
| – Defense Minister in Israel during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. He hoped to eliminate Palestinian resistance movements, remove Syrian occupiers, and create a pro-Israel alliance with the Maronites by invading. However, the war was disastrous, and after his role in the Sabra and Shatila massacres was revealed, he was forced to resign in disgrace. He would eventually return and become Prime Minister of Israel in 2001. He triggered the Intifada II with his visit to the Temple Mount. |
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Term
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Definition
| – A non-violent resistance movement that emerged in Palestine in 1987. It was relatively independent of the PLO in Tunis. It was marked by large-scale civil disobedience (graffiti, the refusal to pay taxes, strikes), and all violence was lightly applied through stone-throwing, Molotov cocktails, and barricades being built. The Israeli defense minister, Yitzhak Rabin, took a hard line towards the movement. It precipitated the Madrid and Washington Talks. |
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Term
Madrid and Washington Talks
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Definition
| – A series of talks from 1991 to 1993. It was an American driven initiative after the 1991 Gulf War. Palestine was not represented by the PLO, and the talks stalemated in December 1992. While this was going on, radical Islamic movements were becoming more active against Israel and the PLO. |
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Term
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Definition
| – These accords in 1993 saw Israel recognize the PLO as the leader of the Palestinians. The “Declaration of Principles” stated that Israel would withdraw from Gaza Strip and Jericho, leading to further withdrawals from the West Bank in 5 years. The Palestinian Authority was formed with self-governing (municipal) powers in the areas. It lead to the election of Yasser Arafat in 1996 and a near settlement over the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. |
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Term
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Definition
| – A second series of meetings between the two parties in July of 2000. It failed because Israel said it would not return to the pre-1967 borders, nor would it cede East Jerusalem. Israel would also annex settlements on the West Bank containing 80% of the 180,000 Jewish settlers. Finally, they would accept no legal or moral responsibility for the creation of the Palestinian refugee problem. The Palestinians sought a large-scale Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank & Gaza Strip, and the recognition of an independent state in these territories. |
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Term
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Definition
| – This movement began in Fall of 2000. When Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount in September with 1,000 armed guards, demonstrations against this event led to violence, with the demonstrations spreading across Palestinian towns. This Movement was led primarily by Hamas and was much more violent than its predecessor. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Members of the Syrian Eastern Catholic church. One of the primary ethno-religious groups in Lebanon. Were part of the confessional political system, they dominated it. After 1946 when they were independent the president was a Maronite Christian. They believe in Lebanism, a phalange under the leadership of the Gemayel leadership. Maronites were against the Palestine resistance/migration into Lebanon. The Lebanese civil war in 1975 was Lebanese Muslims/Palestinian’s vs. Maronites. The Maronites were supporting the IDF (Israel Defense forces.) |
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Term
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Definition
| - Officially classified as Muslims they are an offshoot of Islam. They played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon and the political scene. During the Civil War were in favor of Pan-Arabism and Palestinian resistance. |
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Term
Lebanon under the rule of the Ottoman Empire
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Definition
| - Part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, Ottoman administration was only effective in urban areas while tribal chieftains ruled most other areas. Ceded from the Empire in 1918 underneath the French mandate of Lebanon, being a part of Syria it was given to France. In 1920’s the State of Greater Lebanon was established, with Beirut as it’s capital. |
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Term
Long-term consequences of the French rule (once again)
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Definition
| - The French separated Sunni-Muslim regions from Syria and included these into Lebanon. A Western Structured government not based around Islamic laws. |
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Term
“Divide and rule” (once again)
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Definition
| - By separating these regions with Lebanon they had faction’s against one another. |
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Term
Confessional political structure
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Definition
| – Highest offices are proportionally reserved for representatives from certain religious communities. Related to the demographic composition of the groups in the society determines seat, it recognizes the communal political rights of indigenous peoples. |
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Term
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“Switzerland of the Middle East”
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Definition
| - During the 40’s, 50’s and 60’s Lebanon prospered extensively after their independence from the French mandate. This was driven by tourism, agriculture and banking. Considered one of the banking capitals of Western Asia. Entry of Westernization to Middle East. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Social Democratic Party. Mainly supported by Maronite Christians this party played a major role in the Lebanese war. Reemerged in 21st century it is part of the Parliamentary majority. Created their own militia in the 1970’s to counter Palestinian militant guerillas. Caused the massacres at Sabra and Shatilla where thousands of civilians were killed under the Pretense that it was the Israeli’s. |
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Term
Progressive Socialist Party
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Definition
| - Major element in the Lebanese National Movement sympathizing with the Palestinians. In practice it is supported mostly by follows of the Druze faith. Built a powerful private army conquering much of Mount Lebanon and the Couf District. |
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Term
“Lebanism” (how is it different from Arab nationalism?)
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Definition
| - Lebanon is based upon Christian Maronite leadership, a Nationalistic view versus a Pan-Arabic view. The ancestry of Phoenicians vs. the Arab background. |
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Term
Beshir Gemayel (Pierre Gemayel)
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Definition
| - Lebanese politician and president elect. Senior member of the Phalange party and the commander of the Lebanese Forces militia. Met with Ariel Sharon who told him that Israel forces were planning an invasion to uproot the PLO. Israel then supported the Lebanese forces, which angered the rest of the country. When elected president was going to establish peace talk with Israel. Assassinated in a bombing on September 14th 1982 when the Phalangist headquarters were bombed. |
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Term
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Definition
| - an influential Druze family that settled in the Lebanon Mountains in the 15th-16th century. They were fleeing persecution from the Ottoman governor. There are any Jumblatt characters that have played a significant role in Lebanese history. Led the Sunni Muslims in Lebanon that promoted Arab Nationalism. |
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Term
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Definition
| - President of the Lebanese republic from 1958-1964. During his rule he maintained harmony between the nation’s Christian and Muslim population. Refused in 1964 to have another term of office. He was a brilliant moderator cooperating with different religious groups and forces, brought stability back after the Lebanon crisis in 1958. |
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Term
The relationship between the Lebanese Civil War and the Palestinian problem
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Definition
| - After the eviction from Jordan during Black September, the PLO and Palestinians moved into Lebanon, specifically the North and the capital, Beirut. A renewed influx in Pan-Arabism from the Palestinians led to groups calling for a new Census to more evenly distribute the Confessional power structure. Conflicts of interest were not resolved and militias soon grew into armies. The Lebanese army eventually dissolved as sides were taken, therefore order was lost and the Civil war began. |
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Term
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Definition
| - A line of demarcation in Beirut during the Civil war from 1975-1990. Separated Muslim factions in West Beirut with the Christian Lebanese forces in East Beirut. |
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Term
Israeli occupation of Lebanon (causes and consequences)
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Definition
| - In 1982 Israel invaded Southern Lebanon in order to “clear” Palestinian guerillas and PLO leaders. Israel reached the outskirts of Beirut in 7 days and united with the Maronites against the Syrian forces. The occupation continued until 1985, at this time Beshir Gemayel became President and cooled things between the forces until his assassination. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Thousands of civilians were killed by Lebanese forces on September 16th and 18th Indirectly controlled by the IDF, it has been contested on whether they are to blame even though they did not commit the massacre. They were guarding the camp’s checkpoints therefore were indirectly responsible. Huge international outcry over the massacres. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Are a Shi’a Islamic political and paramilitary organization based in Lebanon. Significant in Lebanese politics as they provide social services (Schools, hospitals, agriculture). Considered a terrorist organization by the USA, Israel, Canada, legitimate resistance movement in the Arab and Muslim world. Gained support, financial and by the population in Lebanon. |
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Term
The relative independence of the ulama in Iran
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Definition
| - Political, Ideological and Sociological, comparing Ulema in other Sunni societies, (Social established and independent) |
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Term
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Definition
| - Born in Khomein, studied with the provincial Ulema. His interpretations of Islamic principles served as an example for the community. He was a Grand Ayatollah, his teaching were the importance of religion to practical social and political issues. Revered by millions, hated by many more. A radical who helped overthrow the Monarchy of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. |
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Term
Social, economic, political factors behind the Revolution
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Definition
| - Began in January 1978 with demonstrations. A conservative movement against the Westernization of Iran, as the Shah was Western backed. The Shah’s regime was seen as corrupt, brutal and overly extravagant. The economy was in a downturn with shortages and inflation, along with security forces unable to deal with protests and demonstrations. The replacement of the Shah with Islamic revival rather than another leader. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Senior Shi’a cleric of Iran. Founding member of the Freedom Movement of Iran. Served as a mediator for Khomeini with Kurdish groups. A Shia cleric who blended Shia and Marxist ideals. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Recognized Khomeini as Grand Ayatollah in 1963. Organized the Azeri population in Tabriz to stage some of the first revolutionary demonstrations in 1978, basically beginning the Iranian revolution. By 1979 it was clear that Khomeini was not going to offer local autonomy to Azeris and the groups broke off from one another. Did not think the Azeri’s could win a war of resistance against Khomeini’s revolutionary guards, told his followers to stand down and the Azeri’s stopped fighting. |
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Term
`Ali Shariati and his ideas
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Definition
| - was an Iranian sociologist and revolutionary with an extensive education in Paris and other places outside of Iran. His works were highly influenced by Marxism and Third Worldism, which a revolution would bring about a just and classless society. He believed people should fight for social justice, “even to the point of embracing martyrdom.” |
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Term
Vilayet-i faqih and why was this concept criticized by many ulama? -
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Definition
| Book written by Ayatollah Khomeini published in 1970. The book argues that the government should be run in accordance with Islamic Sharia. This should happen by having a Islamic jurist (faqih) providing guardianship over the people. Part of this was incorporated into the 1979 Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran. |
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Term
Ba‘th and its ideology (differences between Syrian and Iraqi)
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Definition
| - Originated in the 1950’s it is a Pan-Arab party with many different branches spread over the Middle East. There were two major Branches in Syria and Iraq. The basic beliefs were that there should be Arabic Socialist system, Militarism and strong Pan-Arab Nationalism. The group eventually split with the Syrian based party aligning with the Soviet Union while the Qawni Iraq based party adopted a centrist stance. Ba’th means renaissance and stands for Arabic unity. |
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Term
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Definition
| - A sect of Shiah Islam prominent in Syria. Believe that the leadership of the Muslim community should belong to Ali and his descendents. After a series of coups they helped the Ba’th Party take power in 1963 with Hafez al Assad and Salah Jadid. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Syrian general and political figure of the Baath party, led Syria between 1966-1970. When he led the Baath Party he aligned himself with the Soviet bloc and pursued hard-line policies towards Israel and reactionary Arab states. Sent Syrian controlled troops to support the PLO in Jordan, not supported by Assad’s part of the Baath faction and the troops were forced to withdraw, Jadid was imprisoned during and intra party coup. |
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Term
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Definition
| - President of Syria from 1971 to 2000. He consolidated and stabilized the power of the country’s central government after decades of coups. Succeeded by Bashar al Assad, his son. |
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Term
UAR (reasons for its formation and breakup)
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Definition
| - The United Arab Republic was a union between Egypt and Syria established in 1958 till 1961. It was created to establish a pan- Arab state that Nasser established. The merger was established to consolidate power to deter a communist take over. It began to degrade with the arrogant nature that Egyptian officials had in Damascas, broke up with a coup in the Syrian government with officials that felt the Egyptian government were receiving more from the union than they were. |
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Term
Ethnic and religious conflict in Iraq before 1958
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Definition
- Very broad question
- Rise of Pan Arabism causing ethnic rifts
- Hashemite monarchy lasts until 1958
- Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932
- Dissention between Nationalism and Religious values
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Term
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Definition
| - Officers of the 19th brigade underneath the leadership of Abd al Karim Qasim, they overthrew the Hashimite monarchy on 14th July 1958. Qasim seized power in the coup and ruled the country as Prime Minister until 1963. |
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Term
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Definition
| - President of Iraq from 1979 until 2003. He was a leading member of the Ba’ath party and played a key role in the coup of 1968. Was President during the Iran-Iraq war, as well as the Persian Gulf War. Supported Palestine but invaded Kuwait, therefore the Arab world had mixed views on who he was. Deposed by the US in 2003 during “Operation Iraqi freedom. ” |
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Term
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Definition
| – Speculated to be Saddam’s final stronghold. It was subject to INTENSE aerial bombing. Several thousand US troops then converged on the town meeting little or no resistance. 15 kilometers south of Tikrit is where Saddam was found by US and allied forces. His palace complex was then located in the town, contained a torture room for his son. |
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Term
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Definition
| The town was subject to a punishing artillery barrage in 1988 including gas canisters and chemical weapons. 5000 people died due to mustard gas, nerve agents and cyanide. This occurred during Saddams’s oppression of Kurdish revolts in April 1987. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Armed Kurdish fighters, “those who face death. Have been in use since the 1920’s. During the Kurdish Iraq war in 1974 they retreated to the Iran border, were supported by Iran allowing them to hold off Iraqi forces until Iran and Iraq made a deal. |
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