we are born with a blank slate. 1) sensation 2) reflection

John Locke

realized that in Weber's law, there are perceived differences were identical for subjects

• absolute threshold- smallest value of a stimulus that can be detected
• difference threshold- smallest difference between 2 stimulus that can be detected

• provided the tools needed to answer questions concerning sensations and perceptions
• brain areas were linked to specific behavior
• specific nerves functions - speed, measureable
• five senses (anatomy of them)
• fechner's insight
• proved psychology can be measureable/science

• two point threshold (sensitivity)
• Difference threshold or Just Noticeable Difference- the point where subjects can discriminate between 2 stimuli

• Organizer
• established a discipline
• labs (studies)
• organizations
• publishications (journals, monographs, clinics)
• training programs
• education
• funding
• Ex: Wundt (1st to equalize in Importance natural and human psychology)

• Individual
• Good idea (multi ideas)
• Thinker
• Ex: Fechner

1. Pure- science ex: physics
2. Applied- profession ex: engineering

study of the principles, methods, and philosophical issues involved in writing history

History investigates the past but the past shaped the present and therefore our account of the past will shape the future

Furumoto- criticizes 'old' history methods and advocates 'new history' methods 

caused from the failure to consult primary texts (ex: little albert) 

History fragments (primary) may be lost (or suppressed) distorted in translation, or tainted by self-serving bias (or not even consulted)

• Old History:
• ceremonial
• focused on great men, great events, and great dates
• presentistic
• New History
• critical
• more inclusive
• past-minded
• contextual
• based on primary and archival sources

• human behavior and many internal processes can be explained mechanically
• receptive or data
• data flowing in
• Info coming in through the senses
• laws in external world
• Karl Popper

behavorism

• mind is like a search light - it's activity of reasoning is what reveals certain knowledge (consciousness, rationality, and choice)
• nativist position
• innate/power of the mind
• cognitive

• mechanism- belief that all of nature is a big machine (matter in motion)
• determinism- for every action, there is a result of it's mechanical cause --- no freedom, no choice, no miracle, world is mechanical
• the methodology for investigating our world should be scientific (seeking universal laws) & reductionism, but where do humans fit in this universe?

• obsessed with finding certainty
• are humans merely automata? simple mechanical beings?
• reflex concept- reveals that much of human behavior is mechanical
• "cogito, ergo sum" - i think therefore I am" - human beings also think
• futhermore, the human mind contains Innate Ideas: truths that we can discover

• established scientific psychology (even though Fechner was the originator, Wundt was the founder)
• Found a lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879)
• edited the 1st journal devoted to experimental psych (Philosophische Studien)
• Prolific Writer - published 54,000 pages
• training programs in lab (116 doctoral theses) 
•       James Cattell (mental test)
• Titchner (structuralism)
• Kracepelin (mental disorders classification

• Translated one of Wundt's works into English - didn't accurately describe his work
• Studied in Leipzig (1890-1892)
• Founded sturturalism
• Consciousness (immediate experience) vs. Introspection

• Boring: (standard account based on Titchener's story)
• Psych as a natural science
• method is objective observation (systematic introspection and brass instruments
• Reductionalist - fundamental elements of minds
• Blumenthal:
• no reductionalist, nor elementist, nor sturturalist
• Wundt claimed that experimental psych can only reveal a tiny part of human functioning
• nature science methods can only answer questions about lower mental processes; the methods of human sciences must also be employed
• must use multi methods (qualitative method)
• rejected elementism and was interested in motivation as a central theme (searchlight theory)
• Differences?
• 1. sources consults by historians
• Grundzuge der physiolischen psychologie
• vs. 
• volkerpsychologie (cultural psych
• 2. Linguistic & conceptual understanding 
• Naturwissenschaften (natural science, eg. physics) vs. Geisteswissenschaften (human science)
• 3. Personal Agendas
• boring's academic background (wanted sensory at the center of psych)
• 4. Contextual Issues
• Psych in the 1920s - wanted to establish psych as experimental

• One of Wundt's psychologies- non-experimental psychology -- cultural psychology
• natural history methods - processed overtime 
• 10 volumes - relationships among religions, language, art, custom, myth, and cultural

emphasis on discovering the structure of consciousness (introspective psychology)

• 1. identify the structure of consciousness by 1st identifying its elements
• 2. how are they grouped and arranged
• 3. determined causes of the particular arrangement of elements & why that arrangement
• **analysis, then synthesis  

emphasis on discovering the function of consciousness

• Methods
• experimental observations
• questionnaires
• mental testing (Binet Intelligence testing)
• personality tests
• comparative psych
• S & P
• Learning

Titchener's 1st doc. student-

translator for 2nd volume of Wundt's book

comparative psych

elected president of the APA in 1921 (2nd women elected)

• discovered evolution / theory of natural selection

• ideas of/contributions of Herbert Spencer
• societies evolve
• mechanism of societal evolution is human struggle for survive

'Principle of Population' (struggle for survive)

increase in population, leads to increase in food supply

ex: population increases by x2 and food by +2

any belief, thought, or behavior must be judged by its

Consquence

purpose for the new psych = need a full range of methods(not limited to brass instruments / introspection), inside and outside of the lab

Plurism= multi-methods/points of view

By William James- about the 'new' psychology (experimental)

Is compared to Wundt's 'principles'

consciousness didnt exist in bits or units but rather 'flow like a stream'

1. consciousness is personal
2. consciousness is constantly changing
3. consciousness is continuous and cannot be divided up for analysis
4. consciousness is selective
5. consciousness is functional

• Darwin's cousin - maps of previously unexplored areas

Asked the questions:
1. Does Intelligence run in families?
hereditary genius (1869)
concluded- yes,  intelligence does run in families
2. Does the environment contribute to eminence?
concluded- yes
nature vs nurture (galton's terms)
was in the nature role but thought nurture had some effect
3. How would we determine this?
twin studies!

• Started eugenics- selective breeding
• Anthropometry-human measurement
• scatterplot- developed the notion of co-relation

humans, like animals, could be selectively breeded and thought as humans, we should adapt this method

pos. eugenics- increase the pool of desireable characteristics

neg. eugenics- eliminate individuals with undesireable characteristics bu making them sterile 

human measurement

the search for a 'eugenic' fitness exam

London's international health exhibition 1884

• ** originator & founder
• influenced by Darwinism thought
• 1st Harvard Ph.D in Psych
• 1st American to study with Wundt
• established 1st psych lab in US (1883) ** John Hopkins**
• Founded the child movement to determine the contents on the children's mind
• founded the 1st journal devoted to psych
• founded the 1st journal devoted to psych and education
• founded the APA - or helped to fund- and 1st president
• published 1st book on developmental psych
• founded "The american journal of religion psych and education"
• invited freud to Clark University (freud's and Jung's 1st visit to US
• published 1st US book on aging
• Journal of Applied Psychology
• helped fund Clark. U. when he was president
• coined the term 'adolescence' which he said that it was this phase that an individual is susceptive to religious conversion

• offered to teach at Wellesley so she prompted James to study at Harvard (all males), so they let her 'audit' courses, but not enroll offically 
• petitioned Harvard to grant her a Ph.D but they turned her down
• She faced many barriers and prejudices that women seeking education had to endure. Courage and perseverance- had to show to suceed in the face of adversity
• established a psych lab in 1891 at Wellesley
• memory research
• 'self psychology' books

James McKeen Cattell

• Anthropometric assessment (mental testing)
• 10 test battery (3 psychophysical, 5 sensory, psychomotor/cognitive)
• Clark Wissler - helped measure correlation at Columbia U. - but found no predictive relationship

William James

• bridged European and US traditions; artistic and scientific traditions
• contributions to physiology, psychology (habit, assoication, stream of consciousness, psychology of religion) and philosophy (pragmatism)
• Characteristics of consciousness (personal, constantly changing, continuouos, selective, and functional

Thomas Huxley

Conscious Automata Theory- are we consciousness spewing machines?

If consciousness made no difference, than consciousness would have become extinct

• Intelligence is plastic
• ** originator of ideas
• developed 1st IQ test -identify people and education opportunity
• ** idiographic (case studies)
• studies his daughters (qual)
• 1905 Binet & Simon scale of intelligence
• mental orthropedics

• Galtonian Tradition (nomothetic)
• measured the 'gifted' children
• created tests: imagination, memory, math, language, mastery
• age-specific tests

• invented Factor Analysis- Big 5 personality
• developed 2-factor theory of intelligence
• 'G' plus 's'

Stern

1911- 'mental age' suggested intelligence quotient

IQ=MA/CA x 100

criticized Terman's article on testing

Army testing

when you put an abstract thought into concrete terms

idea that intelligence is a 'thing' and fixed

• IQ is fixed 
• **founder- used Binet's ideas to practice and fund
• Galtonian Tradition (nomothetic) 
• translated the Binet-Simon to English
• Kallikak Family
• eugenics
• steralization- segration
• mental testing & immigration
• differentiate mentally retarded to design Sp-Ed programs
• Feeblemindedness
• "moron" "idiot" etc
• ***deployed immigrants

• 'archeologist of the mind'
• psychosexual stages of development
• structural theory of personality

a neurological mystery - physical symptoms but no physical cause

(females- wondering urethritis) 

Seduction Theory- each case of hysteria exhibits symptoms determined by infantile and recent sexual experiences

Anna O. - Josef Breuer's patient with hysteria

to cure her- free association, aka "chimney sweeping"

subject of the book Studies of Hysteria

• Psychology of women
• thought that female psyche was shaped by their mother (pos ID with mom)
• rejected Freud's phallic phase
• while freud thought femininity was 'acquired'; Horney claimed 'innate'
• freud thought sexual repression was from hysteria but horney thought it was from parenting
• thought maybe females do have penis envy but for funtional purposes, like peeing standing up
• 'womb envy'
• ** founded American Institute for Psychoanalysis
• **3 kinds of neurotic responses:
• 1.compliant- movement towards people
• 2. detached-movement away from people
• 3.aggressive- movement aganist people
• 1st self help author
• importance on childhood experiences & unconscious motivation

• studied cats in puzzle boxes & their problem solving abilities 
• found that animals learned to escape the boxes using trial and error - not reasoning
• from these observations:
• law of effect
• law of reinforcement

• classical conditioning, aka pavlovian conditioning
• early salivation was elicited by the presence of stimuli that had been paired with the food previously so that the stimuli predicted food

• mechanical man
• **Disregarded consciousness
• Ph.D Dissertation in 1903- animal education: study of the psychic development of the white rat, correlated with the growth of it's nervous system (U. of Chicago) 
• Behaviorist:
• 1913 lecture given at Columbia U. 
• "Psychology must discard all reference to consciousness"
• Goal of Psych- should be prediction and control
• Introspection is seriously flawed and can't generate results
• Effect: elected 24th president of the APA

• functionalism
• consciousness has a purpose-adaptive
• natural selection
• bio structure- how it allows you to adapt
• those behaviors that allow us to adapt, survive; and the others don't

• Tropism
• automatic responses -hardwired process
• behavior of simple organisms, responses of external stimulus (complex than reflex)
• looks like movement to stimuli- animals respond just because of their bio make up

• thought behavior was purposive- directed towards some goal-determined by cognitions
• cognitive maps
• intervening variables
• learning-performance distinction
• plus shaped maze

• hypothetico-deductive method- stated a series of postulates from which one could derive testable hypothesis (like throndike's theory but quantitative)
• reinforcement-needs to happen to have learning
• drive reduction- drives represented bodily needs (food, water, sex) and when needs activate, behaviors are put into place to leave to a reduction of needs
• habit strength- a measure of the strength of the S-R connection- strength of learning

B.F. Skinner

• Psychologist as Engineer (producing labor saving devices
• invention of the operant chamber (exploring the functional relationship between behavior and environmental events)
• invention of the cumulative recorder (used to record huge amounts of data)
• Behavior of Organisms (1938)
• "change the reinforcement contingencies and you change the behavior"

• studied the sex differences between males and females by conducting experiences & comparing the results
• on the whole, she found more similiarities than differences
• When she did find difference, it was small
• before thompson, research wasnt directed at discovering that there was a difference but instead to understand their nature & extent to try to understand the causes of those differences
• Thompson was the 1st to use an experimental method to try to find the difference
• results:
• men--motor abilities, creativity
• women--coordination tasks, acute senses, better memory, word associations

• did research to disapprove that because of hormonal changes, women were impaired cognitively and emotionally
• variability hypothesis- men were more variable- either at the extreme his or extreme los

• experimental evidence 
• give males/females free associations quickly
• men- greater variety- abstract
• women-average-concrete
• found that women repeated words less, etc

• masculinity and femininity are at the core of individual temperament and provide the foundation for personality

• "Rosa Parks of the Gay Rights Movement"
• fellowship to study at Berlin Institute for Psychotherapy
• witnessed injustices 
• **research on homosexuality
• friendship with Sam Fromm (intro into gay community)
• challenges durring McCarthy era
• triple stigma:
• sin
• crime
• illness
• Research
• 60 men
• matched with control group
• administered: Rorschach (Ink Blot test) and make a picture story test
• tests were given to clinicians to sort into homosexual responses and heterosexual responses
• result-- they couldnt make the sort
• no significant differences in psychopathology or superior functioning
• ** 1973-- dropped homosexuality as a disorder from the DSM (after 20 years after her research)

• didn't appear in lit. until 1750
• Galton said that the black race was inferior to the whites (reflecting european prejudices)

In the context of Bache: (when science is used to introduce or maintain beliefs about superiority of a particular race)

In this case, native americans had faster reaction time, so flip it around and say its because whites have comtemplative brains

Francis Cecil Sumner

1st african american to get a ph.d in psychology

only 11/10,000 between 1876 + 1920 got a ph.d

at Clark U. - disseration of psychoanalytic ideas of Freud and Adler

Chair of psych department at Howard in D.C.

"National Assocation for the Advancement of Colored People"

looking to overturn 'separate but equal' law

• research of self-esteem differences in black vs white children
• looking for difference b/w segregation vs. integrated schools
• found black kids in segregated schools have decreased self-esteem
• used this research for the 'brown vs. broad of education' case
• ** known as 'doll' study 

published 2 important books on race

1st one addressing that northern blacks are smarter than southern blacks

2nd book on how there's no mentality difference between races

Comparative study of reaction time (and visual) between 3 races (native americans, african americans, and whites) found that native americans were the fastest, than african americans, than whites

explained this by saying they use their spinal columns rather than their cerebral cortex (reflex)

1st black women to get a ph.d in psychology

U. Cincinnati in 1933

research on personality differences in black children in segregated or integrated schools

brown, black, white dolls to fight aganist segregation

brown won

because of the Clark's research on self-esteem