• Lead the Cossack Rebellion in the 1760s against Catherine II
• Former Russian Lieutenant
• Pretended that the was Tsar Peter III who was executed for reform ideas
• turned several million peasants against their lords (3000 landowners perished)

Cossacks

• Former/ military insurgents that live in Southern Russia or the Ukraine
• semi-nomadic and trained in CAVALRY WARFARE
• They supported Pugachev during the Cossack Rebellion against the Catherine II power

• form of nomadic farming where a family produced all they needed to survive
• replaced by enclosures and crop rotation

• took place in Eastern Europe and was largely affected by Cat. the Great's CHARTER of 1785
• tied the serfs to their lords and the land and restricted mobility
• it also enforced higher taxation and was a way to prevent the drain of thousands that occured in 1600

• tax paid to the monarch by the peasants
• essential revenue of the monarch and one of the main causes of the peasant revolt
• it was especially bad when wars were taking place

• a revolt in 1639 by the barefoot men from normandy
• they worked in salt extraction and were opposed to the new taxes and billetting soldiers
• their 4000 insurgents faced the 3000 that were sent by the state

• Rene Descartes pure philosopher that believed in deductive reasoning (way to arrive logically at a conclusion)
• wrote Discourse on Method and advocated TABULA RASA
• using mathematical equations questioned the role of the Catholic Chruch and impacted the Scientific revolution

• advances in Medical Science
• first modern biologist who broke the taboo about dissecting cadavers
• started a medical school in Basal

• proposed a more natural philosopher
• used in deism
• there is a God but he does not interfere in the daily lives
• descartes, voltaire and cicero

• university of Padua (attached to Venice--not subject to papacy)
• worked at the same time as Kepler and accentuated views
• imporoved the telescope and escribed the phases of the moon and sun spots and EARTH ROTATES ON AN AXIS
• inertia--physics
• tried before the Inquisition in 1633 but got off with house arrest by saying it wasn't heresy--he was just reading copernicus

States Newtons lawas of motion, classic mechanics, gravity, and Keplyer's law of planetary motion.

one of the most important works of science

synthesize scientific reasoning with descartes ideas

• method that replaced subsistence farming
• leave a part of land fallow for a season or two or plant root plants instead (like turnips) to revitalize the soil
• successful with enclosure
• contributed to Britain's GNP

• noble whose position was inherited
• advocate of Englightened Absolutism and his works were plagerized by Cat the Great in the Nakaz
• 3 types of govm't: (Republic=liberty virtue was a thing of the past; Monarchy=stable hieararchy; Despotism=autocracy and monarchy too close to absolutism)
• CHECKS AND BALANCES= keep the monarchy from becoming despotism
• other also supported CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCH (incl. Locke and Voltaire)

• part of thegrowth of the cottage or putting out system
• provides work for growing population by building on the existing rural activiites
• merchant capitalist put out of raw material, then the rural workers transforms goods into product for profit
• advantage for merchants and labour was plentiful, cheap and unregulated

• beginning of the 16th centtury on request from landowners who wanted parliament to transform open fields into private land
• they fenced in the fields to keep out trespassers which did not help out the rural folk who relied on available land for survival
• forced 1/2 the english labourers from their land
• rent also rose

 a religious and philosophical belief that a supreme being created the universe, and that this (and religious truth in general) can be determined using reason and observation of the natural world alone, without a need for either faith or organized religion. Deists tend to, but do not necessarily, reject the notion of divine interventions in human affairs, such as by miracles and revelations. These views contrast with a dependence on revelations, miracles, and faith found in many Jewish, Christian, Islamic and other theistic teachings.

Deists typically reject most supernatural events (prophecy, miracles) and tend to assert that God (or "The Supreme Architect") has a plan for the universe that is not altered either by God intervening in the affairs of human life or by suspending the natural laws of the universe. What organized religions see as divine revelation and holy books, most deists see as interpretations made by other humans, rather than as authoritative sources.

Deism became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Age of Enlightenment,

• Englightenment Economics
• wrote "Tableau Economique (1758)
• said that land is the only source of wealth--just be a single land tax
• free market should be established and the government should hold it into place

L'Encyclopedie (The Encyclopedia)

1755

• ideas of the englightenment
• closest thing to an englightenment "manifesto"
• edited by Diderot--daring views
• represents the broad base of the mvmt with over 7000 articles
• was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements and revisions in 1772, 1777 and 1780 and numerous foreign editions and later derivatives.

  Its introduction, the Preliminary Discourse, is considered an important exposition of Enlightenment ideals. According to Denis Diderot in the article "Encyclopédie," the Encyclopédie's aim was "to change the way people think." It was hoped that the work would eventually encompass all of human knowledge; Diderot explained the goal of the project as "All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone's feelings."^[1]

•  In ancien régime France it caused a storm of controversy, due mostly to its tone of religious tolerance. The encyclopedia praised Protestant thinkers and challenged Catholic dogma, and classified religion as a branch of philosophy, not as the ultimate source of knowledge and moral advice. The entire work was banned by royal decree and officially closed down after the first seven volumes

• ideas of the englightenment
• criticized absolutism and the old regime and many were deists
• said the reason of state was too selfish
• it was too arbitrary such as the hidden letters that ordered deaths
• too much corruption, vested interests and monopolies
• Montesquieu, Rousseau, Locke, Voltaire, Smith
• all talk no action? not revolutionary
• problem of hindsight (no democracy before 1776)
• wasn't fair political participation

• idea of the Enlightenment by Rousseau
• a type of democracy where the citizen gives up part of their individual autonomy to be governed by the state in their best interest of the GENERAL WILL
• people were 'forced to be free' and the leader knew what was best b/c citizens couldn't be trusted
• pessemistic

• as the writers' status changed that became more independent contributers of the High Englightenment--prestige even rose to nobility
• phrase from the philosophes that initially referred to the exchange of ideas through letters but became to mean an imaginary space where ideas were exchanged
• political power that shaped the opinions of knowledge
• this only included a small elite number of writers

• literature for the working class that was often image based and vulgar--as a way to comment on the monarch or elite corruption
• very critical and part of the literary undergound
• smutty reviews/pornography/political scandel
• impact was greater b/c they undermind the authorietes and reached a larger audience

• key part of enligtenment consumption often hosted by women
• primary vehicle of the enlightenment in Paris
• cultured ppl brought thoughts together for discussion and socializing (also Berlin, London and Vienna)
• free discussion on politics where criticism was actually allowed
• popular fads such as Mesmerism (electro-treatment)

• originis in Scotland
• secret socieites "stonemasons guilds"
• progessive toleration of Enlightenment ideas
• greater equality among members--and degree of secrecy
• contributed to the spread of ideas during the enlightenment

• literature produced for semi-literate peasants
• not considered works of the enlightenment b/c they were escapist, biographies etc.
• perhaps they were a deliberate way of isolating the peasatns
• the rural elite (ie Parish Priest of Mayor) would read the texts and distribute---culture intermiediaries
• visual communication

• first true global war
• also first war of nations and patriotism
• occurred b/w French-Anglo struggles in N. America, the Carribean and India
• France, Russia and Austria alliance to recapture Silesia from Prussia
• French outnumbered the Brits in Canada but Britsh won
• War is extremely costsly and indebts the French--reason for revolution
lasted nine years from 1754 to 1763.

• when the Polish throne fell vacant in 1763, Russian influence lead to the nobles electing cultured ex-lover of Cat the Great
• he was somewhat influencedby Enlightenment thought--sensing the necessity of reforme he wanted to advNCE MANUFACTURING IN pOLAND
• tried to end LIBERUM veto
• Russia objected b/c they didn't want Poland to become independent

Foreign infantry regiments comprised over 20000 men in 1733 rising to 48000 ment during the 7 years war--then being reduced

professional soldiers hired by a foreign army as opposed to a soldier enlisted in the armed forces of the sovereign state of which he is a citizen

he takes part in armed conflict on many scales

General James Wolfe (2 January 1727 – 13 September 1759) was a British Army officer, known for his training reforms but remembered chiefly for his victory over the French in Canada and establishing British rule there.

Wolfe's part in the taking of Quebec in 1759 earned him posthumous fame and he became an icon of Britain's victory in the Seven Years War and subsequent territorial expansion.

 Faced with the possibility that the British would haul more cannons up the cliffs and knock down the city's remaining walls, the French fought the British on the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. They were defeated after fifteen minutes of battle, but when Wolfe began to move forward, he was shot three times, once in the arm, once in the shoulder, and finally in the chest.

signed Feb 10, 1763 by Great Brtain, France and Spain with Portugal in agreement

ended the 7 Years War and marked the beginning of British dominance outside of europe

treaty didn't involve Prussia or Austria who signed a separate treaty of Hubertusburg 

Jacques Necker (September 30, 1732 – April 9, 1804) was a French statesman of Swiss birth and finance minister of Louis XVI, a post he held in the lead-up to the French Revolution in 1789.

Necker was seen as the savior of France while the country stood on the brink of ruin, but his actions could not stop the French Revolution. Necker put a stop to the rebellion in the Dauphiné by legalizing its assembly, and then set to work to arrange for the summons of the Estates-General of 1789. He advocated doubling the representation of the Third Estate to satisfy the people. But he failed to address the matter of voting — rather than voting by head count, which is what the people wanted, voting remained as one vote for each estate

At the death of King Louis XV, in May 1774, her husband ascended the French throne as Louis XVI, and Marie Antoinette assumed the title of Queen of France and Navarre. After seven years of marriage she gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte, the first of their four children.

During the Reign of Terror, at the height of the French Revolution, Marie Antoinette's husband was deposed and the royal family was imprisoned. Marie Antoinette was tried, convicted of treason and executed by guillotine on 16 October 1793, nine months after her husband.

• pivotal event in the French revolution--signed by 576/77 members of the 3rd 
• during a meeting of the Estates-General, in 1789 the deputies found that the doors to their chambers were locked and guarded and b/c they feared a royal coup by louis XVI, the congregated in a nearby tennis court and took a solemn oath not to separate until their is a new constitution
• the oath was a revolutionary act that asserted political participation of the ppl rather than the monarch
• this forced louis to order the clergy and nobility to join the Thrid Estate in forming hte National Assembly