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- pioneer-University of Paris
- studied under William of Champeaux
- relegation of individual persons simply to instances of a universal defies our observed order of reality in nature
- fell in love w/ Heloise- had child-left it & bcm. monk
- writings on faith and reason
- like Socrates- used q & a
- arguments applied to reason- faith and reason equal
- condemned by Pope Innocent II
- introduced systematic method resting on reason and independent of theology |
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- tried to understand relationship btw. abstract idea or Form, & world of matter
- world is ordered and all life is propelled to develop
- categorization and systematization of all nature
- dropped pessimism of Plato's views of human nature
- deductions and inductions
- 4 types of causality: Material, Formal, Efficient, Final
- 2 entities: Primary matter and substantial form
- dualism
- gradations of souls- vegetative, animal, rational
- 10 properties of physical events from rational powers of soul- Substance, Quantity, Quality, Relation, Activity, Passivity, When, Where, Position, Dress
- views challenged during Renaissance |
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| Acquinas's system (5 faculties of soul) |
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-Person is a dynamic entity, motivated internally by the soul
Vegetative- physical growth, reproduction, seeks food and nourishment
Sensitive- accept information about external world w/ 5 senses
Appetitive- desires & goals and ability to will
Locomotive- capacity to initiate motion toward goals and away from repulsive objects
Intellectual- power of thinking or cognition |
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| Locke (function of the mind) |
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- the mind is passive due to his denial of innate ideas and a dependency on sensory ideas
- two functions of the mind: association and reflection |
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- knowledge is divided into sensations ad perceptions
- sensations- physical- through self-reflection create units of mind which are ideas
- perceptions- reflected products of sensations- material substance as mind substance |
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- impeached for trying to discredit king
- tried to reorganize approach to scientific study by suggesting observational study- empirical sciences-controlled
- perspection for British Empiricism |
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| Psychology of Maine de Biran |
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3rd phase- Essays on the Fundamentals of Psychology (1812)- psychology is the science of the immediate data of the consciousness- "I will, therefore I am."
- psychology is the study of the intentionality of self represented in the consciousness
- ego is central fact of psychology- individual is intelligtent to the level of freedom
- methodology- objective observation through self reflection |
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| John Stuart Mill (associations) |
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-induction-based- goal of psychology is to find underlying causality in human cognition and emotional actrivity
- did not see associations as mental combinations, but governed by:
1. Every experience has a corresponding idea
2. Continuity and similarity produce associations
3. The intensity of an association is determined by the frequency of its presentation
- recognized subjective relationships btw. events and agreed with notion of mental suggestion offered by Brown, therefore, the mind generates complex out of simple
- disagreed with materialists |
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| St. Augustine (Confessions) |
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- written in 400- autobiography- person found peace through faith in God and resolved conflict btw. the passions and reason
- mind is the receptor for divine wisdom and shares in glory of God
- interior sense of soul or mind transcends, yet explains physical reality
- played down rationality
- consciousness or self of the individual, endowed with grace of divine wisdom, determines direction of activity
- only by removing faulty impressions of sensory knowledge can we reach this level of consciousness |
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| The motivational principle in Hobbe's psychology was desire, ultimately a physiological process governed by seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. |
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- relegated bodily functions to the negative state of unreliability and base functions- body is like a prison that interferes with higher, more truly human functions of the soul.
- Like Socrates, believed the soul contained all activities that separate humans from the rest of nature. (hierarchy of souls: nutritive, sensitive, rational)- at the highest level the processes of the human soul permit the formation of ideas in the intellect, leading to rational thought. The soul provides the order, symmetry, and beauty of human existence. At a physical level, there is motion in the world, eliciting sensations. At an intellectual level, there is the formation of ideas that parallell, but go beyond, physical motion and allow abstractions from nature. |
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| Descartes (mind-body relationship) |
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- recognized advances in natural science
- with the exception of God and the human rational soul, all reality is physical and can be explained through mechanical relations
- 2 levels of activity in the universe: the physical world of matter following the order of mecahnical laws, and the spiritual world represented solely in human reasoning
Cartesian dualism- the mind is a spiritual, immaterial entity, different from the body and easier to know than the body because of the first principle of self-reflection- emotions are rooted in the body and represent movement or reflexes to the stimulation of sensory impulses by environmental sources
- the human body with its mechanical operations is distinguished from other animals only because it is acted upon by the mind.
- site of mind-body interaction is the pineal gland of the midbrain because it is singular and situated between the hemispheres of the brain
- the brain is the transitional agent btw. the spiritual energies of the mind and the physical forces of bodily mechanisms
- psychology's subject matter as the mind |
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-1st barometer and theory of probability distributions- "Pascal's traiangle" of probabilities, binomial theorem
- Jansenist- French Catholicism- condemned for Lutheran and Calvinistic beliefs- downplayed science as inaccurate because he rejected reason and senses
- Pascal accepted the existence of mysteries surrounding God and individuals and believed that only religion can deal with this level of knowledge. |
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| In Kritik der Reinen Vernunft (Critique of Pure Reason; 1781), the definition of “pure reason” or “a priori knowledge” is information that does not necessitate scientific verification. Kant expounded on this theory in his Critique of Practical Reason (trans. 1788) where he examined free will. He asserted humans were born with a conscious that followed the Golden Rule, which stated people would treat others in the same way they would like to be treated. Outside the conscious mind is one’s individual realism in which a person has the independence to follow the guidelines established by consciousness. In his association of free will to “a priori knowledge”. Kant acknowledged the existence of choice as it existed for people in their subjective reality. |
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