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| Argued that sense perception and rational powers should supplement faith. |
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| Epitomized Scholasticism. He sought to "Christianize" the works of Aristotle and to show that both faith and reason lead to the truth of God's existence. |
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| After having demonstrated the validity of inner, subjective experience, said that one can know God through introspection as well as through the revealed truth of Scripture. Augustine also wrote extensively on human free will. |
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| An Arabic scholar who attempted to make Aristotelian philosophy compatible with Islam. |
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| An Arabic scholar who translated and modified Aristotelian philosophy and attempted to make it compatible with Islam. |
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| A contemporary of St. Thomas Aquinas, argued that Christianity should remain Augustinian and should reject any effort to assimilate Aristotelian philosophy into church dogma. |
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| Abelard's proposed solution to the realism-nominalism debate. Abelard argued that concepts do not have independent existence , but that, being abstractions, they are more than mere names . |
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| The belief that the best life is one lived close to nature and away from the rules and regulations of society. |
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| The technique used by Abelard in seeking truth. Questions are raised and several possible answers to those questions are explored. |
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| Like his mentor Antisthenes, advocated natural impulse as the proper guide for action instead of social convention. |
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| According to the Skeptics, any person claiming to have arrived at an indisputable truth. |
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| The belief that the best life is one of long-term pleasure resulting from moderation. |
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| The belief that the good life consists of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. |
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| The internal knowledge of moral right that individuals use in evaluating their behavior and thoughts. Postulated by St. Augustine. |
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| The examination of one's inner experiences. |
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| A simple, sensitive man whom St. Paul and others claimed was the Messiah. Those who believe Jesus to be the Son of God are called Christians. |
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| Insisted that God could be known through faith, reason, or the study of his work in nature. |
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| Made a comprehensive review of Aristotle's work. Following Aristotle's suggestion, he also made careful, direct observations of nature. |
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| Jewish physician and philosopher who attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Judaism. |
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| Ancient religions that were characterized by secret rites of initiation; ceremonies designed to bring initiates closer to a deity or deities, to symbolize death and rebirth, to offer purification and forgiveness of sins, and to cause the exaction of a new life; the confession of sin; and a strong feeling of community among members. |
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| Philosophy that emphasized the most mystical aspects of Plato's philosophy. Transcendental experiences were considered the most significant type of human experience. |
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| The belief that so-called universals are nothing more than verbal labels or mental habits that are used to denote classes of experience. |
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| The belief that of several, equally effective alternative explanations, the one that makes the fewest assumptions should be accepted. |
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| Ontological argument for the existence of God |
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Definition
| St. Anselm's contention that if we can think of something, it must be real. Because we can think of a perfect being , that perfect being must exist. |
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| Founded the Christian church by asserting that Jesus was the Son of God. Paul placed the soul or spirit in the highest position among the human faculties, the body in the lowest, and the mind in a position somewhere between. |
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| A Neoplatonist who combined Jewish theology with Plato's philosophy. Philo differentiated between the lower self and a spiritual self, which is made in God's image. The body is the source of all evil; therefore, for the spiritual self to develop fully, one should avoid or minimize sensory experience. |
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| A Neoplatonist who emphasized the importance of embracing the soul through introspection. These inner experiences were more important and informative than physical experiences. |
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| The belief that God has preordained, even before birth, which people will be granted salvation and which condemned to eternal damnation. |
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| The belief that abstract universals exist and that empirical events are only manifestations of those universals. |
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| The synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian teachings. |
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| The belief that all beliefs can be proved false; thus, to avoid the frustration of being wrong, it is best to believe nothing. |
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Definition
| The belief that one should live according to nature's plan and accept one's fate with indifference or, in the case of extreme hardship, with courage. |
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| The Indian religion that emphasized the importance of semiecstatic trances. |
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| Denied the contention of the realists that what we experience are but manifestations of abstract principles. Instead, he sided with the nominalists who said that so-called abstract principles, or universals, were nothing more than verbal labels that we use to describe classes of experiences. For Occam, reality is what we experience directly; there is no need to assume a "higher" reality beyond our senses. |
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| The Persian religion that equated truth and wisdom with the brilliance of the sun and ignorance and evil with darkness. |
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| According to Aristotle, the faculty of the soul that searches for the essences or abstract concepts that manifest themselves in the empirical world. Aristotle thought that the active reason part of the soul was immortal. |
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| One of the first Greek physicians to move away from the magic and superstition of temple medicine and toward a naturalistic understanding and treatment of illness. Among the first to dissect a human. Discovered brain was connected to th3e sense organs |
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| Plato's description of individuals who live their lives in accordance with the shadows of reality provided by sensory experience instead of in accordance with the true reality beyond sensory experience. |
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| Analogy of the divided line |
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Definition
| Plato's illustration of his contention that there is a hierarchy of understanding. The lowest type of understanding is based on images of empirical objects. Next highest is an understanding of empirical objects themselves, which results only in opinion. Next is an understanding of abstract mathematical principles. Then comes an understanding of the forms. The highest understanding (true knowledge) is an understanding of the form of the good and includes a knowledge of all forms and their organization. |
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| The belief that everything in nature is alive. |
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| The projection of human attributes onto nonhuman things. |
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| (384-322 b.c.) Believed sensory experience to be the basis of all knowledge, although the five senses and the common sense provided only the information from which knowledge could be derived. Aristotle also believed that everything in nature had within it an entelechy (purpose) that determined its potential. Active reason, which was considered the immortal part of the human soul, provided humans with their greatest potential, and therefore fully actualized humans engage in active reason. Because everything was thought to have a cause, Aristotle postulated an unmoved mover that caused everything in the world but was not itself caused. (See also Unmoved mover.) |
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Definition
| The philosophical belief that mental phenomena, such as learning, remembering, and imagining, can be explained in terms of the laws of association. (See also Laws of association.) |
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| According to Heraclitus, the state of everything in the universe. Nothing is static and unchanging; rather, everything in the universe is dynamic--that is, becoming something other than what it was. |
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Definition
| Something that is unchanging and thus, in principle, is capable of being known with certainty. Being implies stability and certainty; becoming implies instability and uncertainty. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the faculty located in the heart that synthesizes the information provided by the five senses. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of the origin, structure, and processes governing the universe. |
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Term
| Dionysiac-Orphic religion |
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Definition
| Religion whose major belief was that the soul becomes a prisoner of the body because of some transgression committed by the soul. The soul continues on a circle of transmigrations until it has been purged of sin, at which time it can escape its earthly existence and return to its pure, divine existence among the gods. A number of magical practices were thought useful in releasing the soul from its bodily tomb. |
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the experience of images retained from waking experience. Dreams are often bizarre because the images experienced during sleep are neither organized by our rational powers nor supported by ongoing sensory experience. That dreams sometimes correspond to future events was, for Aristotle, mere coincidence. However, because bodily processes are exaggerated in dreams, physicians can sometimes use dreams to detect the early signs of disease. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the force that transforms a thing. |
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Term
| Eidola (singular, eidolon) |
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Definition
| A tiny replication that some early Greek philosophers thought emanated from the surfaces of things in the environment, allowing the things to be perceived. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that complex processes can be understood by studying the elements of which they consist. |
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the purpose for which a thing exists and which remains a potential until actualized. Active reason, for example, is the human entelechy, but it exists only as a potential in many humans. |
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Definition
| Those indispensable characteristics of a thing that give it its unique identity.basic nature and characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the purpose for which a thing exists. |
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the form of a thing, partiful form of an object |
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Definition
| According to Plato, the pure, abstract realities that are unchanging and timeless and therefore knowable. Such forms create imperfect manifestations of themselves when they interact with matter. It is these imperfect manifestations of the forms that are the objects of our sense impressions. (See also Theory of forms.) |
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Definition
| (ca. a.d. 130-200) Associated each of Hippocrates' four humors with a temperament, thus creating a rudimentary theory of personality. |
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| The rule Aristotle suggested people follow to avoid excesses and to live a life of moderation. |
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| Considered the father of modern medicine because he assumed that disease had natural causes, not supernatural ones. Health prevails when the four humors of the body are in balance, disease when there is an imbalance. The physician's task was to facilitate the body's natural tendency to heal itself. |
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the pondering of the images retained from past experiences. |
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Definition
| The technique used by Socrates that examined many individual examples of a concept to discover what they all had in common. |
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Term
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Definition
| The careful examination of one's inner experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| A thought of something will tend to cause thoughts of things that are usually experienced along with it. |
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Term
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Definition
| A thought of something will tend to cause thoughts of opposite things. |
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Definition
| In general, the more often events are experienced together, the stronger they become associated in memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| A thought of something will tend to cause thoughts of similar things. |
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Definition
| Those laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory. For Aristotle, the laws of association consisted of the laws of contiguity, contrast, similarity, and frequency. |
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Term
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Definition
| Various ceremonies and rituals that are designed to influence spirits. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, what a thing is made of. |
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Definition
| The belief that because what is considered true varies from person to person, any search for universal (interpersonal) truth will fail. In other words, there is no Truth, only truths. The Sophists were nihilists. |
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Definition
| The religion based on a belief in the Olympian gods as they were described in the Homeric odes. Olympian religion tended to be favored by the privileged classes, whereas peasants, laborers, and slaves tended to favor the more mystical Dionysiac-Orphic religion. (See also Dionysiac-Orphic religion.) |
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the practical utilization of the information provided by the common sense, but not trying to understand in first principles or essence |
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Term
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Definition
| Those who search for or postulate a physis. |
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Term
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Definition
| A primary substance or element from which everything is thought to be derived. |
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Term
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Definition
| First a disciple of Socrates, came under the influence of the Pythagoreans, and postulated the existence of an abstract world of forms or ideas that, when manifested in matter, make up the objects in the empirical world. The only true knowledge is that of the forms, a knowledge that can be gained only by reflecting on the innate contents of the soul. Sensory experience interferes with the attainment of knowledge and should be avoided. Nativist dualism of th emind a body. did not further science |
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the soul possessed only by humans. It incorporates the functions of the vegetative and sensitive souls and allows thinking about events in the empirical world (passive reason) and the abstraction of the concepts that characterize events in the empirical world (active reason). |
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Definition
| For Aristotle, the active mental search for the recollection of past experiences. |
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Definition
| The attempt to explain objects or events in one domain by using terminology, concepts, laws, or principles from another domain. Explaining observable phenomena (domain1) in terms of atomic theory (domain2) would be an example; explaining human behavior and cognition (domain1) in terms of biochemical principles (domain2) would be another. In a sense, it can be said that events in domain1 are reduced to events in domain2. |
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Definition
| For Aristotle, the passive recollection of past experiences. |
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Term
| Reminiscence theory of knowledge |
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Definition
| Plato's belief that knowledge is attained by remembering the experiences the soul had when it dwelled among the forms before entering the body. Use introspection |
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Term
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Definition
| Aristotle's description of nature as being arranged in a hierarchy from formless matter to the unmoved mover. In this grand design, the only thing higher than humans was the unmoved mover. |
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, the soul possessed by animals. It includes the functions provided by the vegetative soul and provides the ability to interact with the environment and to retain the information gained from that interaction. |
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Definition
| Disagreed with the Sophists' contention that there is no discernible truth beyond individual opinion. Socrates believed that by examining a number of individual manifestations of a concept, the general concept itself could be defined clearly and precisely. These general definitions were stable and knowable and, when known, generated moral behavior. knowledge and morality were related. |
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Definition
| The belief that a person's subjective reality is the only reality that exists and can be known. |
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Term
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Definition
| A group of philosopher-teachers who believed that "truth" was what people thought it to be. To convince others that something is "true," one needs effective communication skills, and it was those skills that the Sophists taught. |
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Definition
| The belief that nature is purposive, everything has a function. Aristotle's philosophy was teleological. |
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Definition
| The type of medicine practiced by priests in early Greek temples that was characterized by superstition and magic. Individuals such as Alcmaeon and Hippocrates severely criticized temple medicine and were instrumental in displacing such practices with naturalistic medicine--that is, medicine that sought natural causes of disorders rather than supernatural causes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Plato's contention that ultimate reality consists of abstract ideas or forms that correspond to all objects in the empirical world. Knowledge of these abstractions is innate and can be attained only through introspection. |
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Term
| Transmigration of the soul |
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Definition
| The Dionysiac-Orphic belief that because of some transgression, the soul is compelled to dwell in one earthly prison after another until it is purified. The transmigration may find the soul at various times in plants, animals, and humans as it seeks redemption. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Aristotle, that which gave nature its purpose, or final cause, but was itself uncaused. In Aristotle's philosophy, the unmoved mover was a logical necessity. |
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Term
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Definition
| The soul possessed by plants. It allows only growth, the intake of nutrition, and reproduction. |
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Term
| platos two times of writings |
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Definition
| first part was reporting thoughts and methods of socrates. 2nd combined the socratic method with mystical pythagorean philosophy |
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Term
| difference btween plato and artistotle |
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Definition
| plato thought went through pure thought and aristotle came through examining nature |
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Definition
| material, formal, efficient, final |
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Term
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Definition
| vegatative, sensitive, rational |
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Term
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Definition
| active reason, passive reason, common sense, sensory information |
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Term
| aristotles explanation of sensation |
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Definition
| didn't think object sent copies to our senses, but motion of objects stimulated our senses. We could trust our senses. |
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Term
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Definition
| happiness is brought to humans most through rationally and moderation |
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Term
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Definition
| A mind that transforms, interprets, understands, or values physical experience. The rationalists assume an active mind. |
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Definition
| Persistent observations that cannot be explained by an existing paradigm. Anomalies eventually cause one paradigm to displace another. |
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Definition
| The type of determinism that stresses the biochemical, genetic, physiological, or anatomical causes of behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Laws describing causal relationships. Such laws specify the conditions that are necessary and sufficient to produce a certain event. Knowledge of causal laws allows both the prediction and control of events. |
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Term
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Definition
| Within science, propositions capable of validation through empirical tests. |
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Term
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Definition
| Laws that specify the systematic relationships among classes of empirical events. Unlike causal laws, the events described by correlational laws do not need to be causally related. One can note, for example, that as average daily temperature rises, so does the crime rate without knowing (or even caring) if the two events are causally related. |
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Term
| Correspondence theory of truth |
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Definition
| The belief that scientific laws and theories are correct insofar as they accurately mirror events in the physical world. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that everything that occurs does so because of known or knowable causes, and that if these causes were known in advance, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy. Also, if the causes of an event were known, the event could be prevented by preventing its causes. Thus, the knowledge of an event's causes allows the prediction and control of the event. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that bodily and mental events are inseparable. They are two aspects of every experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| Anyone who believes that there are two aspects to humans, one physical and one mental. |
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Term
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Definition
| Taking the best from a variety of viewpoints. The approach to the history of psychology taken in this text is eclectic because it combines coverage of great individuals, the development of ideas and concepts, the spirit of the times, and contributions from other disciplines. |
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Term
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Definition
| The contention that mental processes emerge from brain processes. The interactionist form of emergentism claims that once mental states emerge, they can influence subsequent brain activity and thus behavior. The epiphenomenalist form claims that emergent mental states are behaviorally irrelevant. |
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Term
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Definition
| The direct observation of that which is being studied in order to understand it. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that the basis of all knowledge is experience. |
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Term
| Environmental determinism |
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Definition
| The type of determinism that stresses causes of behavior that are external to the organism. |
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Term
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Definition
| The form of emergentism that states that mental events emerge from brain activity but that mental events are subsequently behaviorally irrelevant. mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of the nature of knowledge. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The approach to history that concentrates on the most prominent contributors to the topic or field under consideration. |
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Term
| Historical development approach |
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Definition
| The approach to history that concentrates on an element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding of or approach to studying that element has changed over time. An example is a description of how mental illness has been defined and studied throughout history. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of the past for its own sake, without attempting to interpret and evaluate it in terms of current knowledge and standards, as is the case with presentism. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of the proper way to write history. |
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Term
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Definition
| Those who believe that ultimate reality consists of ideas or perceptions and is therefore not physical. |
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Term
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Definition
| The contention that even though determinism is true, attempting to measure the causes of something influences those causes, making it impossible to know them with certainty. This contention is also called Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. |
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Term
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Definition
| A proposed answer to the mind-body problem maintaining that bodily experiences influence the mind and that the mind influences the body. |
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Term
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Definition
| Any explanation of human behavior stressing determinants that are not under rational control--for example, explanations that emphasize the importance of emotions or unconscious mechanisms. |
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Term
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Definition
| Those who believe that everything in the universe is material (physical), including those things that others refer to as mental. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that the behavior of organisms, including humans, can be explained entirely in terms of mechanical laws. |
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Term
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Definition
| Those who believe that there is only one reality. Materialists are monists because they believe that only matter exists. Idealists are also monists because they believe that everything, including the "material" world, is the result of human consciousness and is therefore mental. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that what one experiences mentally is the same as what is present physically. |
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Term
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Definition
| Anyone who believes that important human attributes such as intelligence are largely inherited. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that human thought or behavior is freely chosen by the individual and is therefore not caused by antecedent physical or mental events. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Kuhn, the research activities performed by scientists as they explore the implications of a paradigm. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that the relationship between the mind and body is mediated by God. |
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Term
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Definition
| A viewpoint shared by many scientists while exploring the subject matter of their science. A paradigm determines what constitutes legitimate problems and the methodology used in solving those problems. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Kuhn, the stage in the development of a science during which scientific activity is guided by a paradigm. That is, it is during this stage that normal science occurs. (See also Normal science.) |
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Term
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Definition
| A mind that simply reflects cognitively one's experiences with the physical world. The empiricists assume a passive mind. |
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Term
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Definition
| The type of determinism that stresses material causes of behavior such as beliefs, emotions, sensations, perceptiongs, ideas, values, and goals |
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Term
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Definition
| An attempt to account for something after it has occurred. Postdiction is contrasted with prediction, which attempts to specify the conditions under which an event that has not yet occurred will occur. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that bodily events and mental events are separate but correlated because both were designed to run identical courses. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Kuhn, the first stage in the development of a science. This stage is characterized by warring factions vying to define the subject matter and methodology of a discipline. |
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Term
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Definition
| Interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards. |
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Term
| Principle of falsifiability |
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Definition
| Popper's contention that for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that if made would refute the theory. To be considered scientific, a theory must make risky predictions. (See also Risky predictions.) |
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Term
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Definition
| The type of determinism that stresses mental causes of behavior. |
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Term
| Psychophysical parallelism |
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Definition
| The contention that experiencing something in the physical world causes bodily and mental activity simultaneously and that the two types of activities are independent of each other. |
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Term
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Definition
| The stipulation that scientific laws must be available for any interested person to observe. Science is interested in general, empirical relationships that are publicly verifiable. |
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Term
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Definition
| The philosophical belief that knowledge can be attained only by engaging in some type of systematic mental activity. Importance og logical, systemic, and intelligent thougth process. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that abstractions for which we have names have an existence independent of their names. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that because all experience must be filtered through individual and group perspectives the search for universal truths that exist independently of human experience must be in vain. For the relativist, there is no Truth, only truths. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Kuhn, the stage of scientific development during which an existing paradigm is displaced by a new one. Once the displacement is complete, the new paradigm generates normal science and continues doing so until it too is eventually displaced by a new paradigm. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Popper, predictions derived from a scientific theory that run a real chance of showing the theory to be false. For example, if a meteorological theory predicts that it will rain at a specific place at a specific time, then it must do so or the theory will be shown to be incorrect. |
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Term
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Definition
| A consistently observed relationship between classes of empirical events. |
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Term
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Definition
| Traditionally, a proposed explanation of a number of empirical observations and guide for future observations |
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Term
| Sociocultural determinism |
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Definition
| The type of environmental determinism that stresses cultural or societal rules, customs, regulations, or expectations as the causes of behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that there are universal truths about ourselves and about the physical world in general that can be discovered by anyone using the proper methods of inquiry. |
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Term
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Definition
| The belief that life cannot be explained in terms of inanimate processes. For the vitalist, life requires a force that is more than the material objects or inanimate processes in which it manifests itself. For there to be life, there must be a vital force present. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| fads and fashions in science |
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Definition
| viewpoints disappear simply because they become unpopular, which vary with the zeigest, not always because incorrect |
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Term
| science is often characterized as having two major componenets |
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Definition
| empirical obseration and theory |
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