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Form of government in which a monarch (king or queen) has absolute power over the lives of his/her subjects. The justification of said power originates from the idea of divine right, providing the people a motive for obedience. This does not, however, necessarily imply that such an absolute power was, in fact, exercise completely, as there were often limits that could hinder such power imposed by the Church, the clergy, or the aristocracy.
The struggle was much more so directed against the monarchy in the French Revolution, than in the American Revolution, which began as a demand simply for representation within the
preexisting British government. The French harbored great resentment towards the increasing social status and diminishing public role of the aristocracy, these "established, privileged, closed groups." |
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Frenchman who traveled to the United States and published "Democracy in America" in 1835. He comes from a family of liberal aristocrats, many of whom died during the years of Revolution, which caused him to be fearful of the phenomenon.
He did support the Revolution, he was simply turned off by its violence. He thought that peasants were only in it for revenge, not the doctrines or principles. Feared that the Revolution brought out the worst in people, a "virus." The Reign of Terror helped prove this point. He was deeply ambivalent towards democracy, saw it as an inevitability. His views towards this altered greatly later in his life, as he became more suspicious.
He admired the democracy in America, although he was not a supporter of individualism, found the ability to remain collective fascinating. Thought there to be a general equality among people, although this has since been seen as oversimplified. |
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| Rousseau, "Discourse on the Origin of Inequality" (1755) |
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| 18th Century philosopher who greatly influenced the French Revolution with his publication of "Discourse on the Origin of Inequality" in 1755. In this publication, he argued that all human society was corrupt as it encouraged people to seek predominance over one another. He further claimed that in "advanced" societies, vanity and selfishness had reached extremes. As a result, he encouraged citizens to devote themselves towards the common good, to break the tendency of exploitation and oppression.The influence of his work can be seen explicitly in both the French and American Constitutions. In the American Constitution , his work is seen in Article 7. |
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Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyés, an Abbe who had risen to prominence through the ranks of the Church prior to the Revolution. He became an important leader and voice as the Revolution took shape, publishing "What is the Third Estate?" In this pamphlet, he attacked the nobility as a parasitic foreigner, and was highly critical of the Clergy, primarily through asking three questions:
1.) What is the Third Estate? Everything.
2.) What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing.
3.) What does it want to be? Something. |
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| "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" |
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| The document drafted by the National Assembly as a precursor to the Constitution. Essentially, this document defined the rights of every man, to be equal in a universal sense. It was a statement of general principles on which the new order was to rest. It preached equality and inherent rights and the states duty to protect them. It was approved in August of 1789, and echoes ideals that would go on to become the basis of European liberal thought in the early 19th century. |
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| The Transition from the Third Estate to the National Assembly |
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The Third Estate was the house of commoners in the French Parliament during the reign of Louis XIV. After having their demands met and receiving twice as many votes, Louis still did not say whether or not the votes would be counted in head or by order (1st-nobility, 2dn-clergy, 2rd Estates). On June 17, 1789, the 3rd Estate agreed to present their credentials (after refusing to do so for 5 weeks) alongside members of the 2nd Estate, and proclaimed that in doing so they represented the nation- National Assembly.
National Assembly representative of whole country; first genuinely revolutionary act of 1789. This transition came about after the 5 week deadlock between the king and the representatives of the Third Estate during the General Estate meeting of 1789. After breaking the deadlock the commoners issued a statement proclaiming them the representatives of a nation, thus preforming the first revolutionary act that would inspire many to come. |
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| It was the ideology that all power comes from the masses. Moreover, it was a call from revolutionaries such as Abbe Sieyes and others, for the common people to become actively involved in government and political life. It claimed that the people were the source of power and thus must be responsible for controlling it. It affected not only law and the way change came about in 18th century France, but the military and its statutes for years to come. |
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| Haiti: The Contradictions & Revolt of 1794 |
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| Due to the political influence of plantation owners from the lucrative, slave trade-thriving Saint-Domingue, as well as the fear of a loss in commercial French power, revolutionary leaders were in a difficult political dilemma in regards to the extent of their universalism ideals. In Aguust 1791, there was a small revolt on the island, the result of which ended with free black having their rights revoked. This action prompted a following, more intense revolt in 1793, led by Tousaint (a freed black) who had struck up an alliance with the Spanish on the other part of the island. The result was an abolition of slavery in the colony in 1793, and Haiti became the first post-slavery country. |
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| Jewish Emancipation, 1791 |
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| In 1791 the Legislative assembly granted full civic equalities to Jews. It was important because it was one of the first granting of rights to Jewish Europeans. An oath was required, to ensure the rounoucing of certain priveledges and exceptions granted from any Jewish societies. The importance was the legal framework it set into place. while it did not bring anti-semitism to an end, it did set the standard from then onwards. |
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| The Consulate (1799-1804): What comes before and after? |
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| The French Consulate was the government that emerged from the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, and lasted until the Napoleanic Empire in 1804. Came after The Directory, and before Napoleon's Coronation. Main goals: end wars, codify the laws, establish peace. This came at the expensive of abandoning the Revolutionary ideals. Important to end the French Revolutionary Wars which had been going on since 1792, this need by the people for this to occur led to their concessions of a strengthened executive branch, and the consulate government (consisting of three heads- Bonaparte, Sieyes, and Ducos) in which control was exercised by Napoleon at every level. The popularity of the Consulate government was supported by its plebicite results. |
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| Civil Code/ Code Napoléon |
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| In 1804, the most important of Napoleonic reforms. Most influential aspect was its rule of law that was established. A series of five law codes issued by Napoleon in 1800. In essence they were a combination of the most important ideals from the revolution and the needs of Napoleons new authoritarian regime. Lauded for its brevity and success, it's legal codes went on to be adopted by countries as far away as Japan and the New World. Adittionally, the codes can be seen as remarkably nationalistic. |
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| Leader of Napoleon's secret police who enforced the authoritarianistic power with which Napoleon sought to rule. His brutality and espionage made people compare him to "Paris under the Terror." The excessiveness and brutality of Fouché, and the arbitrary imprisonment of citizens, something prohibited, was at clear confrontation with the principles of freddom of speech and individual liberty from the Revolution. |
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| Napoleon does not deserve much of the credit he gets for the expanding of free public primary education. In ideal of the Revolution, and unsuccessfully carried out, Napoleon likewise did not have marked success. The secondary schools, divided into 5 central schools, however, receive a very high level of education. That is until Napoleon opted to close them and open the lycees which enabled more direct governmental supervision. The lycés became essentially nurseries of patriotism, as the government had centralized control of school. The Universite was established in 1808 by Napoleon and were the most successful of his educational reforms in a Revolution of 1789 sense, they sought to give freed proper education to all male citizens, doing so by having primary through high education incorporated in conjunction with one another. |
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| The Old Imperial Centers and Bureaucracies |
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| Europeans thought themselves as unique for having a strong, centralized power, however were incorrect in their limited, euro-centric view. |
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| The Natural Man, "The Baron in the Trees" |
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| Living in Society, "The Baron in the Trees" |
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| Spiritual Confusion of the Age, "The Baron in the Trees" |
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| Reason versus Passion, "The Baron in the Trees" |
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| The Old Order versus the New, "The Baron in the Trees" |
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| Gender Roles, "The Baron in the Trees" |
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