Term
| Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi |
|
Definition
Mohandas Gandhi was a well-educated Indian populist leader who disapproved of the system of racial segregation he witnessed in South Africa in the last decade of the 19th century into the first decade of the 20th century. Indians were seen as second-class citizens. When he returned to India in 1915, Gandhi got involved in politics. Merging spirituality with political activism, he embraced tolerance and non-violence (ahimsa), and he developed the practice of satyagraha, passive resistance. Gandhi believed that the struggle against the British was not only physical, but psychological as well, and that the people had to fight the psychological battle within first. Gandhi's teachings traveled overseas and made a significant impact on other societies too: the concept of civil disobedience was adopted in the US by Martin Luther King Jr during the infamous Civil Rights Movement.
|
|
|
Term
| aristocracy and peasantry |
|
Definition
| Before modernity gave way to a new system of classes and hierarchy, aristocracy and peasantry were the two main classes. When social and economic structures were traditional during the time of feudal societies, aristocrats were superior to peasants. These two classes are significant because they provided the foundation for the transformation of class system that took place at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. The class of aristocrats was replaced by the factory-owning bourgeosie, and peasants were replaced by the proletariat working class who was actually worse off than the peasants before them. Class systems were a main conflict in the centuries to come, and aristocracy and peasantry were the among the first classes to exist. |
|
|
Term
| bourgeosie and proletariat |
|
Definition
| The bourgeosie and proletariat were two classes in European society that stemmed from the classes of aristocrats and peasants and were formed in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution. The bourgeosie consisted of factory owners, and the proletariat were those who worked [for the bourgeosie]. The proletariat were actually worse off than the peasants who came before them. These two classes and their (mainly the proletariat's) struggles were a result of the rise of modernity seen during the Industrial Revolution as well as the rise of capitalism. The oppression of the proletariat class by the bourgeosie is significant because it paved the way for the application of several ideologies including Marxism and Social Darwinism in the 19th century. |
|
|
Term
| "family economy" & "family wage economy" |
|
Definition
| With the rise of modernity in Europe during the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries came changes in the organization of production. Before the Industrial Revolution existed a traditional "family economy" which was an organization of workers within the workplace. Characterized by small settings consistent with those in the household, it made no distinct separation between work and home. Men and women worked together; jobs were differentiated by age/sex and training/skill; and some work was expected of all family members. "Family wage economy," which replaced the former "family economy," separated the workplace from home. Family members worked in different 'spheres'; some were in factories while others were in mines. Different roles were labeled for men and women as (in)appropriate, and the bourgeosie believed that women belonged in the home, not in the workplace. These new social ideals were significant because they allowed for further changes in traditional thought which would become the new norms in societies. Eventually, societies would yearn for the equality between men and women that once existed. |
|
|
Term
| "one sex" and "two sex" models |
|
Definition
| When the change from "family economy" to "family wage economy" took place in Europe during the Industrial Revolution, the roles of men and women transformed and, in turn, affected scientific thought as well. The traditional "one sex model" of anatomical structure presented the male and female bodies as being structured very similarly. The key differences (like genitalia) were seen as being inverted. The "two sex model" that came into play around 1750, however, introduced a different image. A diagram that surfaced in 1759 showed the male skeleton to have a sturdier ribcage and narrower pelvis than that of females. Another drawing compared the male body structure to that of a strong and powerful horse, and the female anatomy to that of an unintelligent and graceful ostrich. This change in anatomical models was significant in that it foreshadowed the several gender issues/inequalities that would rise in the centuries to come. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that took place in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Intellectuals saw God differently and believed that science and man governed the universe, not God. Enlightenment thought stressed the importance of the individual and the realization of individual rights that shouldn't be controlled by the monarch. Intellectuals of the Enlightenment included John Locke, who stressed the importance of a social contract between rulers and their subjects to ensure their rights are not violated, and Voltaire, who believed that there was too much authority in the hands of the church and that there should be a separation of church and state. Political movements that stemmed from Enlightenment thought include the American and French Revolutions in the late 18th century. The Enlightenment period was significant because it allowed for modernization in political thought and opened the doors for liberalism which led to the emergence of capitalism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| John Locke was an Enlightenment thinker of the 17th century who believed that no ruler should have absolute power. He stressed that a social contract should exist between a ruler and his subject to ensure that the subjects' rights would not be violated. Locke's thoughts were significant because he contributed to the change in people's way of seeing society. Before the Enlightenment, monarchs chose whether or not subjects had rights. Locke's emphasis on social contracts led to the establishment of legislatures and constitutions (which were social contracts). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Karl Marx was a 19th century political economist who wrote The Communist Manifesto in 1848 with Friedrich Engels and also wrote Das Kapital. Marx believed that industrialization in Europe was creating two major social classes: bourgeoisie, or factory owners, and the proletariat, or working class. Marx stressed the importance of understanding the history of class struggle and the "modes of production" to understand how society would develop in the future. During the rise of capitalism, Marx argued that the proletariat would have to revolt and gain control of the means of production (factories) to end their oppression. Then, they would have to organize a socialist government for the welfare of everyone. Marx's big ideas, known as Marxism, are significant because they served as the foundation for socialist systems as well as ideologies. Marx's theories sparked several revolutions in the 20th century that overthrew existing governments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Adam Smith was a Scottish 18th century liberal economist who was nicknamed the "father of free-market capitalism" and was known for his work Wealth of Nations written in 1776 which discussed liberal economic theory. Smith promoted the liberty to pursue self-interest, one's own well being, without the interference of or dependence on others (including government). He was content with the socio-economic capitalist system because he believed it would increase the welfare of everyone. Smith argued that mass-production of goods manufactured by industrialized factories would increase affordability. Smith's idea of laissez-faire, minimal governmental interference in economics, was significant because it gave way to the system of capitalism; several major systems and ideologies, including Marxism, emerged in opposition of capitalism. These systems were the foundation for major revolutions that took place in the 20th century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Liberalism was a 19th century ideology that stressed progress and freedom (rights). It stemmed from Enlightenment thought and, thus, emphasized the individual and his importance in society. Liberalism called for the establishment of popular assemblies (legislatures) and constitutions (social contracts which John Locke advocated) as well as Adam Smith's idea of minimal governmental interference in economic affairs known as laissez-faire. Liberalism was important because it paved the way for capitalism, which led to other systems and ideologies that would further lead to major events, like revolutions and alliances, in the 20th century. Liberalism was one of the first links in a long chain of actions and reactions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 19th century ideology that focused on class struggle and the need for a revolution in which the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeosie
- rose out of liberalism and capitalism, in opposition to both
- wanted socialism to replace capitalism
- based on Enlightenment ideals (human progress & individuals' rights to challenge authority) just like liberalism and capitalism!!
- Marxism was significant because there were several different figures (like Lenin) in the 20th century who acted based on their own adaptations of Marxism and began great revolutions
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- worldwide political belief system that was prevalent throughout the 19th and 20th centuries
- characterized by allegiance and ties to a nation to protect it
- nationalism would encompass patriotism as well
- nationalism permeated the ideologies of liberalism and marxism; a marxist could be a nationalist and a liberalist could too
- significant in the 20th century because it gave the public a sense of pride which affected how the different nations strived to be the most advanced and how they dealt with each other (for example, in the World Wars)
|
|
|
Term
| Colonization & Semicolonization |
|
Definition
| Colonization and semi-colonization are two branches within the process of New Imperialism which took place during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Colonization, also known as formal imperialization, was characterized by military conquest and the establishment of political control/restructuring in and of the colonized state. Semicolonization (or informal imperialization), on the other hand, was characterized by the powerful countries dominating trade, investment, and business activities so that they could profit from the semicolonized societies. It allowed the imperialists to influence their subjects' affairs without the trouble of direct political control. The difference between these two types of colonization is significant because the imperalist countries would recruit their subjects and some subjects were more likely to have nationalist sentiments than others, resulting in resistance and revolutions. |
|
|
Term
| British East India Company |
|
Definition
| The British East India Company was a company that originally pursued the East Indies (hence the name) but ended up focusing on the Indian subcontinent. When the Mughal emperor died, the East India Co took advantage and began the conquest of India, beginning with Bengal in 1757. They enforced their rule with armies that were mostly made up of Indian troops known as sepoys. Eventually, most of India was under British rule and the Sepoy Rebellion took place. The British retaliated and the government did away with the East India Co and took direct rule. The East India Co was significant because it essentially started the process of colonization and led the way for other imperialist nations. Imperialism eventually led to resistance in subject lands and had a magnificent effect on the world in the 20th century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Berlin Conference of 1884 set the rules for the dividing up of Africa among the Imperialist powers. Any European state could establish African colonies as long as it told the others. Africans had no say in what happened to their state. The boundaries were intentionally split up in a way that would prevent the formation of any possible powerful indigenous groups. The conference was significant because it actually allowed for the partition/breaking up of Africa. There were very few areas that were left untouched by Imperialists. |
|
|
Term
| Arthur Gobineau, The Inequality of Human Races |
|
Definition
| Arthur Gobineau believed that race was the most important determinant of human potential. The Inequality of Human Races was an essay he wrote in 1835-1855 that explained how humanity was divided into four racial groups: The Africans were unintelligent and lazy, the Asians were smart but docile, the Native Americans were dull and arrogant, and the Europeans were superior to all in every aspect. Gobineau's ideas and his work are significant because they allowed for the justification of Imperialism. Tied with Nationalism, his racist ideas led to feelings of superiority that resulted in colonization and extreme measures being taken in the 20th century, including attempts to eliminate races altogether. |
|
|
Term
| Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species |
|
Definition
| Written by Charles Darwin and published in 1859, On the Origin of Species discussed the concept of 'survival of the fittest'. This meant that those who are the strongest in various aspects, depending on the situation, survive, and the weaker are eliminated one way or another. Darwin applied this theory to biological matters only. His book is significant because its main ideas were used as the foundation for Social Darwinism which applied Darwin's biological theories to races and social classes in 20th century Europe. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Social Darwinism is an ideology that stemmed from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution which is discussed in his work, On The Origin of Species which was written in 1859. Darwin claimed that species in nature survive and reproduce through chance outcome known as survival of the fittest. This means that those who are the strongest in various aspects, depending on the situation, survive, and the weak are eliminated one way or another. Social darwinists took Darwin's ideas, which Darwin applied to biological matters only, and applied them to social classes and race in the late 19th century. The social application of Darwin's beliefs continued throughout the 20th century. Social Darwinism is significant because it justified unjust behavior in the 20th century: Imperialism was permissible because some nations are naturally stronger and, therefore, have the right to rule weaker nations; the bourgeosie could oppress the proletariat because they are naturally a higher class than the proletariat; several leaders--most prominently Adolf Hitler--extended the idea to race and believed that the Aryan race was superior to and should, therefore, eliminate all others. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In the early 1800s, Britain had a balance of payments problem with China. China refused to trade for silver, so the The British East India Company began trading their silver for India's (British colony at the time) opium. Then, the East India Co would trade with China in opium for Chinese silk, porcelain, tea, and even silver. The Chinese were not only addicted to opium but were having problems with payments, and the imbalance was growing. In 1839, Chinese government officials took action to end the opium trade (which was supposed to be illegal to begin with). The British military retaliated and the Opium War ensued from 1839 to 1842, when the Chinese sued for peace. The opium trade is significant because it led to the Opium War. The war is significant because it ended with the Treaty of Nanking (1842) which was the first of several unequal treaties that would eat away at China. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Treaty of Nanking took place in 1842 at the end of the Opium War which involved Britain and China. It ended the war, gave Hong Kong to Britain, opened treaty ports, required China to acknowledge Britain as the most-favored nation, among other things. This treaty is very significant because it was the first of several unequal treaties for China throughout the second half of the 19th century. Those unequal treaties later led to hostility between China and other nations (namely Japan) in the 20th century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Meiji restoration refers to the restoration of the Meiji emperor in Japan in 1868. Rapid industrialization took place during the Meiji era. In 1876, Japan purchased warships from Britain. The Sino-Japanese War between Japan and China in 1894 was fought over the control of Korea. They made peace in April of 1895 and Japan got the better end of the deal. In 1904, Russia and Japan went to war over Korea and Manchuria; the Russo-Japanese War lasted from 1904 to 1905, when Japan defeated the Russian fleet. The Meiji restoration is significant because of the development of Japan during the Meiji emperor's reign. Because of the Meiji restoration, Japan became a major imperial power. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 1894-1895
- China and Japan fought over Korea
- China recognized Korea as independent...which meant it was free for Japan to take over
- China also ceded Taiwan and other leasehold properties in northern China
- ended with another unfair treaty for China
- significant because it built nationalist sentiment in Japan and anti-Japanese sentiment in China
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- WORLD WAR I
- AKA Central Powers
- grew from relationship between Germany and Austria-Hungary
- 1879, the two formed a Dual Alliance which ensured that they'd back each other up from Russian attack
- Germany was scared of France and Austria-Hungary was scared of Russia
- Italy was scared of France, too, so it joined the alliance in 1882; however, it left the alliance in 1915, after the war had begun.
- SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE it made Franch and Russia suspicious, and Britain was suspicious of anything that created an imbalance of power, so they formed an alliance called the Triple Entente (aka The Allies)
- the formation of the Triple Alliance made it difficult for any conflict to remain just a conflict
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- France was suspicious of The Triple Alliance, and Russia was too. Britain was suspicious of anything that threatened the balance of power. The three formed an alliance called the Triple Entente, also known as the Allies.
- Italy joined them in 1915
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- new tactic used during WWI (1914)
- the territory between opposing trenches was known as "no man's land"
- scattered in and around the trenches were shell craters, cadavers, and body parts
- trench warfare was significant because it created a stalemate which was ended by the production and use of lethal gas as well as tanks, airplanes, and submarines. trench warfare forced faster development of weaponry
- it was also significant because politicians censored the horrific reality of the war and were justifying all that was happening; knowledge of this censorship eventually led to distrust in the media later in the 20th century
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- January 1918
- Central Powers agreed to a treaty/truce if it was based on the 14 points
- open agreements of peace, openly arrived at
- absolute freedom of navigation of the seas in peace and war
- removal of all economic barriers; establish equality of trade conditions among all nations
- adequate guarantees for reduction of armaments
- equal weight given to interests of controlling gov and colonial people
- "general association of nations"
- significant because they didn't do any of it; unfair to Central Powers and even colonial subjects who were given hope
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- term used in 1918 by US President Woodrow Wilson in his speech "Fourteen Points" at the end of WWI
- means that political entities can determine their own affairs
- Treaty of Sevres in 1920 violated the principle of self-determination by creating a system of mandates controlled by the French and British in the Middle East
- national boundaries were drawn in central and eastern Europe according to some nations' rights to self-determination, but those who did not benefit from the placement of boundaries were stripped of their right to self-determine.
- self-determination was also to be applied to colonized lands but was not, and the hope for it gave rise to new political movements
- self-determination--or the denial of it--is significant because it became the source of much anger and tension following WWI; everyone wanted to be able to take care of their own affairs
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 1919
- est the League of Nations (which the US never joined, even though Wilson was the one who proposed it)
- intended to draw lines of power & authority among European nations and to punish Germany (who was blamed for the war)
- created new nations in central Europe to keep the contenders apart on the eastern front, according to the principles of "self-determination"
- it was never ratified by many, including the US
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- 1920
- 1 of 4 addition treaties (to Versailles)
- dissolved the Ottoman empire and called for occupation of eastern & southern anatolia
- British and French gained power in the region
- contradicted the notion of self-determination
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lenin was a late 19th and early 20th century revolutionary Marxist who led the Russian Bolshevik socialist party. He had been exiled, but Germany permitted him to go back to Russia in hopes of a Russian revolution that would lead to Russia withdrawing from the war. This did happen. Under the leadership of Lenin, the Bolsheviks gained control of the Petrograd Soviet and the power had successfully passed over to them in 1917. Russia withdrew from the war in early 1918. Lenin was a significant figure because his adapatation of Marxim led to the Russian Revolution in 1917 which led to the transformation of Russia from an underdeveloped nation to a much stronger and advanced nation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The New Deal was U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's program proposed around 1933 in response to the Great Depression that hit in 1929. It was designed to prevent the collapse of the banking system, provide jobs, guarantee minimum wages, and provide social security for those of old age. The New Deal was significant because it meant that governments could protect the social and economic welfare of their citizens; this idea led to a major change in the governmental policies of the U.S. in the 20th century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fascism was an ideology that developed in the early 20th century as a reaction to liberal democrazy and the spread of socialism and communism. It called for the veneration of the state and devotion to a strong leader. Emphasizing ultranationalism, it created a sense of chauvinism and xenophobia which led to ethnocentrism. Militarism, also stressed, pointed to the maintenance of large and expensive military and organization of public life along the military lines. Fascism was significant because extremely powerful and influential leaders emerged from it; among these leaders were Benito Mussolini who dictated Italy and Adolf Hitler who dictated Germany. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Benito Mussolini was an Italian 20th century socialist who became a fascist after the first Great War. He founded the first fascist party in 1919 and managed to get several fascists into Parliament. Mussolini gained public support by violently eliminating socialists. In 1926, Mussolini gained seized totaly power and immediately began to eliminate all other political parties, limited freedom of press, and outlawed the freedom of speech and association. Several Italians were killed, imprisoned or exiled because they were supposedly antifascist subversives. In 1938, Mussolini issued anti-Semitic laws that were most likely influenced by Mussolini's friend's, Adolf Hitler, hostility toward Jews. |
|
|
