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| “Quechua, the servant of a native noble, treated as a dependent and receiving goods for his or her services; also used in colonial times to refer to native servants in the fashion of Andean tradition, a nominally paid dependent” p. 480 ; a form of forced servitude in Andean communities. Nobles would have yanaconas (servants) help them with labor tasks. Near Cuzco, these were peasants taken from the countryside and forced to work in the fields. |
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the cultural aspect of genocide: unraveling culture of believes and social practices. This is the key to the notion of salvation and consolation. Begins with slave trade, justification: Bull of Romanus Pontifex (1455): papal decree: sanctions raids upon and capture of infidels as long as they are not Christians, then convert them.
conversion itself a form of conquest |
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| a brotherhood or sisterhood for religious and charitable purposes; a sodality p. 475 where people get together as members of a profession |
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| (1474-1566), arrives in the New World in 1502 on the second voyage of Columbus. Receives encomienda in 1513, but when a Dominican confessor refuses to hear his sins, he gives encomienda up to be a friar. Becomes anti-Spanish because of rights violations and violence toward indigenous peoples. Las Casas is one of the first chroniclers of events, with a clear political view in support of the indigenous peoples. Founds mission in Chiapas where he becomes Bishop. |
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| 1524-1570s. Organized by Franciscans. They believe true conversion happens through conversation and free will. They sent 12 missionaries to fully immerse themselves in Nahua culture and language, create dictionaries and translations in order to hold discussions, seminars. An interesting fusion of indigenous and Catholic culture. The crown eventually brought the order back in line, as it was difficult to tell who was converting whom. |
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| from secular humanist to the first Bishop of Michoacan / “Tata Vasco.” Created the pueblos hospitales. Humanist in the style of St. Thomas More, believed that the “problem” of the Indians = problem of humanity at large, so he decided to create a ommunity that would allow for social harmony through physical social and environmental space. |
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| organized towns/cities of indigenous peoples from Michoacan, by Vasco de Quiroga. A kind of “safe space” for indigenous people: elimination of polygamy and child marriage; communal labor and ownership of land; craft skills training skills still advantageous over competition to this day (descendents well-known as skilled craftspeople). |
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| Francisco de Toledo, the viceroy of Peru, applied the layout of the pueblos hospitales. Reservation- esque; a reducción was a Spanish-style village into which natives were forcibly resettled, esp. 1570-90. On reducciónes there was forced conversion, forced separation and segregation. |
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| a result of the Spanish push against indigenous religion. Starts around Cuzco, sweeps down into modern Southern Bolivia, begins 1560 and lasts around 10 years. Representatives of Andean huacas moved from ayllu to ayllu, recruiting 10,000 followers, proclaiming a new pan-Andean alliance of deities coming together to defeat the Spanish god. These deities would then unleash a new plague that would only affect Spaniards (re: plagues of Egypt – signs of absorption of biblical concepts). A new world would thus be born. Rebellion put down after about 10 years, and followers were forced to repent, publicly humiliate themselves. |
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| named after Francisco de Toledo, who is a member of a noble family in Spain. He studied missionary reports, reports of the viceroys for two years then goes to Peru in 1569. He began implementing reforms in 1570. These reforms drastically altered indigenous life. Among the actions taken were: elimination of neo-Incan state, trains soldiers in modern warfare, organizes indigenous peoples into reducciónes. |
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| The “Spanish” Civil War in Peru |
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| Pizarro and Diego de Almagro were the two main conquistadores of Peru. Pizarro was not interested in sharing his conquered viceroyalty, so he sent Almagro south to find minerals in Atacama desert. Almagro is beaten by the Mapuche and is forced to return to Peru, where Pizarro executed him (1538). Then in 1541 Pizarro is executed. This causes all hell to break loose, pitting different factions of Spaniards against one another (Almagrists vs Pizarrists), but also indigenous rebellions. |
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| founded by Manco Inca in 1539, where raiding and attacks of Cuzco was organized. Because Vilcabamba was in on the Eastern slope of the Andes (into the Amazon), new tactics were formed here – guerrilla fighting; rebellion is spread into Argentina). After the Taki Onquoy movement is put down, Vilcabamba falls, signaling the end of Inca rebellion. |
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silver-rich city in present-day Bolivia. Spanish discover silver here in 1545 and establish the town. Yanaconas were originally sent here to work. Within 50-60 years of the arrival of Spaniards, reach 10,000s of people, 160,000 people (1540s: no one there) explosion of people funneling in
example of a new colonial town
when indigenous people move to these towns, they stop being “real” indigenous people – they lose their culture |
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| the first Portuguese man to reach the coat of Brazil in 1500. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. However, the settlement of Brazil did not really begin until 1530 Cabral was more interested in getting to the Orient around South Africa and India, and the Portuguese were more interested in further developing African colonies + Macau and Goa. |
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| Most important city in the Americas and center of the Mexica Empire between the mid 14th and 16th centuries before it was captured by Cortes in 1521. Characterized by large central squares framed by temples, pools, fountains etc. Templo Mayor was situated in the center with twin towers of Huitzilopochtli (God of War) and Tlaloc (God of Rain). Unique presence of canals which were used to transport food and waste. It was larger than any European city with 300 000 inhabitants and was the center of the tribute system. Underwent a 3 month siege by Spaniards in an attempt to capture the city and take over the Empire, but were defeated (noche triste). 13 months later successfully captured the city (death of Moctezuma). Cortes built present-day Mexico City over the remains. |
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| “fence of reeds”. Ancient Mesoamerican agricultural technique which were essentially lakeside “floating gardens” accessible by intricate canal systems throughout Tenochtitlan. Raised gardens made of branches, roots and brushwood and covered with fertile soil from the lakebottoms. The soil was high-nutrient and further supplemented by human waste. Permitted year-long production of a variety of root crops, vegetables, fruits and flowers. Chinampas produced the highest calorie/yield ratio in the world and produced enough food to support additional nonfarming groups. |
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| “black soils of the Indians” found in the Amazon Basin. Full of nutrients that were built up over the centuries by composting ash, human waste, shells and bones to increase the soils pH. Allowed for the evolution of agriculture within semi-sedentary societies - cultivation of squash was prominent in this area. |
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| Chicama-Moche Inter-Valley canal |
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| 74km canal; one of the largest Andean canal systems that took 5000 people over 100 years to build. Impressively sophisticated technology used to transport water from one valley to another for crops in the dry season. Demonstrates the advanced nature of Incan civilization and organization structured collective labour. |
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| basic unit of social organization within the Aztecs which gave a degree of autonomy within an imperial system. Literally translates to a ward and was a community whose members were related by birth and kinship; or by occupation; class; or ethnicity. Land was communal and members were responsible for working it as well as distributing food and organizing their own justice system. The leader was generally from a local noble family who was elected to the position and assisted by a council of elders. Led to entrenched social divisions, ethnic confederations and served as a building block for the atlepetl. |
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| indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America who spoke Nahuatl and came to be known as the Aztecs. Tied to ethnogenesis in terms of cosmology and ethnicity. Not very many specific for this term so can probably tie it in to any Mexica terms. |
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| “water and mountain”. Political organization that governed the civic obligations of its member calpulli, ie: oversaw tribute collection, provision of military troops and rotational labour drafts. Organized the local markets and arranged the terms of trade with neighbourhood calpullis. Leaders of the altepetl served as the local nobility and created political alliances. System was retained with the arrival of the Spaniards as it ensured the success of the tribute system. |
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| large groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers who inhabited Northern Mexico. Included the Tehuanes, Zacatecos and Guachichiles and were the dominant civilization between 200 -700AD. Referred to as “barbarians” because they often fought with the “civilized south”. Aztecs tried to avoid them. Attempted to occupy the northern mines and captured Tula (Toltec capital city), which ended their Empire and led to wars amongst the city-states. One group of chichimecans (known as the Mexica) used their mercenary and language skills (learned Nahuatl) to take over. |
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| Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica consisted of many advanced cultures such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec; many of these settled in the Valley of Mexico. Spain “conquered” Mexico in 1521 with the fall of Tenochtitlan and installed a system of viceroyalties until independence in 1821. |
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| first dominant society was Teotihuacan with approx. 100 000 people in 450AD, not much available evidence. Collapse in 600 leads to rise of Toltecs and then the Mexica who became known as Aztec by historians. Arrived as warriors and settled in the valley. Rise of Mexica symbolizes shift from theocratic to militaristic as they killed surrounding groups to expand their territory |
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| referred to the four quarters of the Incan empire with the center at Cuzco; a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. Pachacuti (the Sapa Inca) reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into the Tahuantinsuyu which had a central government and four provincial governments demonstrated another system of social organization |
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| Indigenous groups who lived in the high-altitude Andes centered around Cuzco. Did not have great city centres, monetized trade systems or written language (used ropes with knots Qhipu), but formed an incredible empire. Stretched for 4400km from Ecuador to present-day Chile and Argentina and consisted of over 5 million subjects. Worked through methods of reciprocity to incorporate conquered peoples as allies extension of economic benefits. Responsible for the spread of Quechua as they made extensive road systems covering approx. 16 000km. |
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| Basic societal unit of organization in the Andes that formed a self-contained, autarchic social and economic community of localized kinship groups. Subsistence based, produced specialized food/products and traded with other ayllus within a 2-day walking distance. Lands were distributed depending on need .Each ayllu worshipped its own founding spirits (huacas) and was led by the kuraka. Rebellious peoples could be taken from one ayllu and relocated to another. |
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| native leader of Andean community ayllus. He was selected from local noble families and distributed lands and obligations equally. In exchange for this administrative work he received lands for maintenance. Acted as the “middle man” between indigenous in the ayllu and peninsular Corregidor; called men to duty for Incan public works |
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| “the turn”. Cyclical labour obligation of the natives to Spanish. Originally a system, of shared labour between indigenous, but “revamped” by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo of Peru by giving a modern function to ancient indigenous traditions. Organized this massive labour draft system to provide sufficient labour to mines. Every native villager within a certain distance of Potosi was required to work there once every 7 years worked out to approx. 14 000 workers annually. Were paid under one of the first minimum wage laws. However, this system did not work as well as planned since diseases were rampant and life as a mitayo was very difficult. |
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Andean religion emphasizing lineage and ancestry. Centered on the sacred Andean spirits which could take on different forms (ie: gold, silverware, superhuman) and memorialized how people are related to each other.
The Greater Caribbean – Region stretching from Virginia to Patagonia. Characterized by international ports which were the initial points of contact between indigenous, Spaniards and slaves. *Not exactly sure what else is important?* |
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