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(559–530 BC)
Was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire
Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East,expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia, parts of Europe and Caucasus
He himself died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC.
Cyrus the Great respected the customs and religions of the lands he conquered
It is said that in universal history, the role of the Achaemenid empire founded by Cyrus lies in its very successful model for centralized administration and establishing a government working to the advantage and profit of its subjects
Cyrus the Great is also well recognized for his achievements in human rights, politics, and military strategy, as well as his influence on both Eastern and Western civilizations |
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622 CE: Early Islam - The Quaraishs resist the new religion. Muhammad and his small band of followers migrate to the town of Yathrib in the north, which is open to his new faith. The Hijrah of 622, the migration, marks the beginning of the Muslim era. After making himself ruler, Muhammad changes the name of the town to Medina ("city of the Prophet"), and Medina becomes the seat of the caliphate.
630 CE: Early Islam - Muhammad and his followers overtake Mecca. With the Quaraish in submission, the Kabah, the central place of worship for Arabian tribes, becomes the main shrine of Islam.
632 CE: Early Islam - With the death of Muhammad, his father-in-law, Abu-Bakr, and Umar devise a system in which Islam can sustain religious and political stability. Accepting the name of caliph ("deputy of the Prophet"), Abu-Bakr begins a military exhibition to enforce the caliph's authority over Arabian followers of Muhammad. He thereafter moves northward overtaking Byzantine and Persian forces. Abu-Bakr dies two years following his succession of Muhammad. Umar succeeds him as the second caliph and begins a campaign against the neighboring empires.
Islam expands across the globe |
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City is thought to have been established around 100 BCE city is thought to have been established around 100 BCE
The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries CE
At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas
At this time it may have had more than 200,000 inhabitants, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population
Its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented:
Evidence of Teotihuacano presence can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region
The Aztecs may have been influenced by this city |
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Is a cuboid-shaped building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the most sacred site in Islam
The Qur'an states that the Kaaba was constructed by Abraham and his son Ishmael
The building has a mosque built around it
All Muslims around the world face the Kaaba during prayers |
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It is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sūtras, and the basis on which the Tiantai and Nichiren sects of Buddhism were established
The oldest parts of the text (Chapters 1-9 and 17) were probably written down between 100 BCE and 100 CE: most of the text had appeared by 200 CE
The Lotus Sutra presents itself as a discourse delivered by the Buddha toward the end of his life |
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The process by which small, kin-based, non literate agricultural villages were transformed into large, socially complex, urban societies.
The term "urban revolution" was introduced in the 1930s by V. Gordon Childe.
He presented a 10-point model for the changes that characterized the Urban Revolution:
Large population and large settlements (cities)
Full-time specialization and advanced division of labor
Production of an agricultural surplus to fund government and a differentiated society
Monumental public architecture
A ruling class
Writing
Exact and predictive sciences (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, calendars
Sophisticated art styles
Long-distance trade
The state |
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(750-1258)
The third of the Islamic caliphates
It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region
The Abbasid caliphate was founded by the descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's youngest uncle, ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, in Harran in 750 CE
In the eleventh century the Abbasid caliphate began to decline:
Weakened by over extension
Weakened by the influx of outsider groups
Weakened by the rise to power of the Turkish army
The Abbasids' rule was briefly ended for three years in 1258, when Hulagu Khan, the Mongol khan, sacked Baghdad, resuming in Mamluk Egypt in 1261, from where they continued to claim authority in religious matters until 1519, when power was formally transferred to the Ottoman Empire and the capital relocated to Constantinople |
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Supreme God of the Persians believed to have created the world and all that is good and to have appointed earthly kings
Zoroaster promoted belief in the god Ahura Mazda
Adversary was Ahiram |
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(356-323BCE)
Leader who used novel tactics and new kinds of armed forces to conquer the Persian Empire, which extended from Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea to the interior of what is now Afghanistan and as far as the Indus River valley
His conquest broke down barriers between the Mediterranean world and Southwest Asia and transferred massive amounts of wealth and power to the Mediterranean, transforming it into a more unified world of economics and cultural exchange
His conquest introduced:
Institutional stability
Trade (Once concurred the fear of attack was reduced)
Encouraged common language and money for contracts
He did not live long enough to establish institutions to hold his land together |
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Port city in Egypt named after Alexander the Great
It was a model city in the Hellenistic world
It was built up by a multiethnic population from around the Mediterranean world |
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(382-322BCE)
Philosopher who studied under Plato but came to different conclusions about nature and politics
Aristotle believed in collecting observations about nature and discerning patterns to ascertain how things work
His main idea was that the interested inquirer can find out more about the world by collecting as much evidence as possible about a given thing and then making deductions from these data about general patterns |
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(268-231BCE)
The third Emperor of the Mauryan dynasty
He was a great conqueror and unifier of India and almost the entire South Asia
Kalinga conquest:
Mauryan army won at a high price
100,000 soldiers died
150,000 people were forcibly relocated
Asoka felt bad and issued a edict renouncing his brutal ways
Faithful follower of Buddhism
Claimed to rule according to dhamma |
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(1365-605BC)
First Assyrian expansion (1365-911BC)
Neo-Assyrian Empire(934-605BC)
First mega empire
One of the last great expressions of Mesopotamian culture
Ruled by terror and brutality(contrast to Persian Empire)
Military:
Hardened and disciplined professional troops Led by officers who rose high in the ranks because of their merit not birth
King:
Represent the God of war Assur
King was responsible for bringing all other nation into order
Law codes, derived from Hammurabi (Abortion and homosexuality was punished most severely)
Tiglath Pileser III (r.745-728)
Was an talented military leader
Took power from royals
Reinstated annual military campaigns |
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| Augustus Caesar (Octavian) |
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(63BC-14AD)
Ruled as military monarch, first emperor of the Roman empire
First emperor to rule over Rome (27BC-14AD)
Was adopted by his great uncle Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavian restored the outward facade of the Roman Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, but in practice retained his autocratic power
It took several years to determine the exact framework by which a formally republican state could be led by a sole ruler; the result became known as the Roman Empire
The emperorship was never an office like the Roman dictatorship which Caesar and Sulla had held before him; indeed, he declined it when the Roman populace "entreated him to take on the dictatorship"
By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including those of tribune of the plebs and censor
He was consul until 23 BC
His substantive power stemmed from financial success and resources gained in conquest, the building of patronage relationships throughout the Empire, the loyalty of many military soldiers and veterans, the authority of the many honors granted by the Senate, and the respect of the people
Augustus' control over the majority of Rome's legions established an armed threat that could be used against the Senate, allowing him to coerce the Senate's decisions
With his ability to eliminate senatorial opposition by means of arms, the Senate became docile towards him
His rule through patronage, military power, and accumulation of the offices of the defunct Republic became the model for all later imperial governments |
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(333BC)
Occurred in southern Anatolia
The invading troops, led by the young Alexander of Macedonia, defeated the army personally led by Darius III of Achaemenid Persia in the second great battle for primacy in Asia |
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(490BC)
It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes
It was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to subjugate Greece
The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten
The eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to begin at Marathon |
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(552-486BC)
Means"the place of god" is a multi lingual inscription located on Mount Behistun
Authored by Darius the Great
The inscription begins with a brief autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry and lineage
Later in the inscription, Darius provides a lengthy sequence of events following the deaths of Cyrus the Great and Cambyses II in which he fought nineteen battles in a period of one year to put down multiple rebellions throughout the Persian Empire
The inscription states in detail that the rebellions, which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the Great and his son Cambyses II, were orchestrated by several impostors and their co-conspirators in various cities throughout the empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed kinghood during the upheaval following Cyrus's death
Darius the Great proclaimed himself victorious in all battles during the period of upheaval, attributing his success to the "grace of Ahura Mazda"
The inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian |
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Type of horse carriage used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples
Small, light, fast, complex, delicate
Built under compression, can bend
Spoked wheels
Pulled by pair of horses
Spring-loaded
Used for royal hunts, warfare, burial
Ritual, symbol of speed and the gods
Chariot package-technology of chariot, ritual, iconography, animals, breeders and grooms, drivers
Tutankhamun(war chariot), tomb chariot |
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| Charlemagne(Charles the Great) |
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(800-814)
Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum)
He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe
During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800 |
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(551-479BC)
Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period
The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and government morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, and severity
Primarily teacher of students, not of rulers
Humanity, propriety, righteousness
Advocated hierarchy of society
Ren-genuine human nature, sympathy
Li-rules of conduct based on social status
Yi-do right thing regardless of situation |
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(521-486BC)
Leader who put the emerging unified Persian Empire onto solid footing after Cyrus's death
Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the alleged magus usurper of Bardiya with the assistance of six other Persian noble families
Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it
He organized a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire
Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire, focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon and Egypt
Darius devised a codification of laws for Egypt
He also had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved, an autobiography of great modern linguistic significance. Darius also started many massive architectural projects, including magnificent palaces in Persepolis and Susa |
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(499 BC-449 BC)
Series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and city-states of the Hellenic world
Began with Cyrus the Great conquered Ionia in 547BC,struggling to rule the independent-minded cities of Ionia, Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them |
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Roman emperor who converted to Christianity in 312BCE
In 313BCE, he issued a proclamation that gave Christians new freedoms in the empire.
Founded Constantinople |
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The notion that as one region or state expands in economic prosperity, it must engulf regions nearby to ensure ongoing economic and political success
The area of high growth or former high growth becomes known as the core, and the neighboring area is the periphery |
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| Capital acts as a social relation within a system of exchange, and the term is extended ‘to all the goods material and symbolic, without distinction, that present themselves as rare and worthy of being sought after in a particular social formation and cultural capital acts as a social relation within a system of exchange that includes the accumulated cultural knowledge that confers power and status |
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A philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao (道), which is the mechanism of everything that exists
Accept the world as it was rather than trying to change it through politics or the government
Scorned rigid rituals and social hierarchies
Laozi (5th-4th centuty BC)
Dao-way of nature
Naturalness and artificiality-no heaven, lives life of naturalness, no gov't, taxes
Non-actions, (wuwei)
Death not feared |
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(250 to 125 BC)
The easternmost part of the Hellenistic world, covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia
Diodotus, the satrap of Bactria founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom when he seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BC and became King Diodotus I of Bactria
The new kingdom, highly urbanized and considered as one of the richest of the Orient |
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(206 BCE – 220 CE)
Was the second imperial dynasty of China
Eastern Han(25-220AD) weaker, smaller than Western Han
Social classes:
The rulers-royalty, hereditary nobles, official/scholars
The ruled-farmers, merchants (got rich from trading), artisans
Zhang Qian First journey made to northern Afghanistan, learned of Mesopotamia, India, diplomatic relation with Persia
Military expansion brought china into international diplomatic/trade sphere |
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First mentioned in 1200BC Egypt
Synonymous with Israelites, especially in the pre-monarchic period when they were still nomadic
In some instances it may also be used in a wider sense, referring to the groups known to the Egyptians as Habiru or Shasu during the Egyptian Empire on the eve of the Bronze Age collapse
By the Roman era, Greek Hebraios could refer to the Jews in general, but more specifically to the Jews living in Judea
In Early Christianity, the Greek term refers to Jewish Christians, as opposed to the gentile Christians |
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Original form of Buddhism
Literally means "small inferior vehicle"
Only monks can achieve enlightenment
Must achieve through own effort |
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Most battles between Greek city-states took place on land between massed formations of infantry men or "hoplites"
Serving as a hoplite defines one's right to citizenship or membership in the city
Wearing same armor and contributed equally to the battle line defined democratic ethos of the individual citizen |
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(2BC - 32AD)
Central figure of Christianity
Love your fellow man
Salvation (from sin and death) |
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The scripture of the Islamic faith
Was revealed to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years
Was created to be spoken orally |
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Master Xun (310-237BCE)
A system of thought about how to live an ordered life
Based on principle that people, being inherently inclined toward evil, require authoritarian control to regulate their behavior
Agriculture and war most important
Majesty of ruler-absolute authority
Standardize everything
Progressive:
Can't recreate past |
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Arose in 100BC in northwest India
Everyone could be enlightened
Nonexistence of self and things
Buddha nature is imminent within each
Many future and past Buddhas
Bodhisattvas helper spirits (seen in Chinese and Japanese Buddhism) |
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(321-185BC)
Indus Valley to northwest area of South Asia, in a region previously controlled by Persia
First large-scale empire in South Asia and was to become the future Indian empires
The Empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies |
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The adjective Mayan is sometimes used to refer to the indigenous peoples of southeastern Mexico and parts of Central America, such as Guatemala
Mayans ruled over large stretches of Mesoamerica, a series of kingdoms built around ritual center rather than cities
Mayans used tributary relationships to expand borders
Mayans not defined by a great ruler or one capital city, but share religious beliefs
noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as for its art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. Initially established during the Pre-Classic period |
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Arabian city where Muhammad was born
Trading center and pilgrimage destination in the pre-islamic and islamic periods
Muhammad exiled in 622AD, returned mecca in 630AD and claimed for Islam |
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The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC
A people who built number of elaborate, independent palaces centers on Crete, at Kknossos in 2000BC
Named after King Minos, who ruled Crete at the time
Planted colonies in Aegean islands in 1600BC, they became trading and mining centers |
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(479-438BC)
School of thought in ancient China, named after Mozi
Emphasized one's obligation to society as a whole, not just to one's immediate family or social circle
Universal love
Anti-militarism-support of small states over big states, pacifist |
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(570-632CE)
Prophet and founder of Islamic faith
Born in Mecca in Saudi Arabia
Cared by his uncle when orphaned
Was a trader |
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(1900-1100 BC)
Was a cultural period of Bronze Age Greece taking its name from the archaeological site of Mycenae in northeastern Argolis, in the Peloponnese of southern Greece
Mainland competitor of Minoans
Took over Crete in 1400BC
Brought horse chariots, metalworking,
Indo european language, from central Europe
Dominated until 1200BC
perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization in the eastern Mediterranean |
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Denomination of Christians whose beliefs differed from official Byzantine church
Focused on human aspect of Jesus(Jesus was god, also child of woman)
Two separate entities of Jesus, man then god after death |
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| A Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism |
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| Pacal (the Great) of Palenque |
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(603-683AD)
Ruler of the Maya polity of Palenque in the Late Classic period of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican chronology
During a long reign of some 68 years Pakal was responsible for the construction or extension of some of Palenque's most notable surviving inscriptions and monumental architecture |
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| Persian Empire (Important) |
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(550-330BCE)
Founded by Cyrus the Great
From Afghanistan to Libya
A model for Alexander and Rome
Less brutal than Assyrians
Ruled by satrapies (individual states)
Had coinage system
Religious tolerance
Declined due to:economy, political intrigues, military weakness, no longer expanding |
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Military formation used by Philip II of
Macedonia (father of Alexander the Great)
heavily armored infantry closely arrayed in battle formation
Seen in ancient Greek warfare
Marched as one entity, crushed opponents |
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(382-336BC)
Father of Alexander the Great and Philip III
King of Macedon from 359BC until his assassination in 336 BC
Macedonia developed into a large ethnic and territorial state
Conquered neighboring states after unifying Macedonia
His most important innovation was doubtless the introduction of the phalanx infantry corps, armed with the famous sarissa, an exceedingly long spear, at the time the most important army corps in Macedonia |
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(427-347BC)
Disciple of Socrates
His works are the only record we have of
Socrates' teaching
Author of formative philosophical works on ethics and politics
Helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science |
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Ancient Greek city-states
Self-governance, autonomy and independence |
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(332-30BC)
It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state stretching from southern Syria to Cyrene and south to Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and trade
To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves the successors to the Pharaohs
The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life |
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(264-146BC)
3 wars fought between Rome and Carthage
Cause:
Conflict of interests between Carthaginian empire and expanding Roman empire
Roman victory conquered Western Mediterranean
Gave Rome a preeminent status it would retain until the 5th century AD |
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(361-221BC)
Lord Shang reformed Qin
Agriculture and military only important things
Lend oxen and metal tools to farmers
All sons to farm or work
Harsh laws for small crimes
Achieve prestige through military
Divided into provinces,each with governor
First attempt to centralize control
Banliang coin, standardized weights and measures (axle-width, chariot, writing)
Qin created a lasting political form that survived 2000 years and 24 dynasties
Unification of culture ensured "one Chine" |
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(259-210BC)
First emperor of a unified China in 221BC
Undertook gigantic projects, including the first version of the Great Wall of China, the now famous city-sized mausoleum guarded by a life-sized Terracotta Army, and a massive national road system, all at the expense of numerous lives |
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Founded (753BC)
Was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean
The 500-year-old Roman Republic, which preceded it, had been weakened and subverted through several civil wars
Several events are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire:
Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC)
The Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC)
Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus
The Empire reached its greatest extent under Emperor Trajan: during his reign (98 to 117 AD) the Roman Empire controlled approximately 6.5 million km
The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 as Romulus Augustus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer |
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| Roman Republic(Important) |
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Definition
Founded 509BC
Non-monarchy(ruled by the rich)
Government operated as a republic
Its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate
A complex constitution gradually developed, centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. Except in times of dire national emergency, public offices were limited to one year, so in theory at least, no single individual could dominate his fellow-citizens
Sack of Rome by Gaul, caused Rome to have buffer around them and weakened Etrauscan so Rome can expand
Punic Wars, Macedonia and Greece expansion
Large territory led to civil war, then transformation to Roman empire |
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| Secondary State Formation |
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Process by which new empires/states are formed as a result of interactions with other empires
Often a result of war; for example, to fend off a larger nation like Persia, the smaller Greek city-states formed the Delian League, which emerges as Athens' new empire |
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(312-281BC)
Founded by Seleucus I Nicator
Was a Greek-Macedonian state that was created out of the eastern conquests of Alexander the Great
The Seleucid Empire was a major center of Hellenistic culture which maintained the preeminence of Greek customs and where a Greek-Macedonian political elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas
Seleucid expansion into Greece was abruptly halted after decisive defeats at the hands of the Roman army
Much of the eastern part of the empire was conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC, yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by Armenian king Tigranes the Great and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey
Most unstable of all kingdoms
Persians exluded from ruling |
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Born 556BC
Was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded
He is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (the enlightened one)
Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers
Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about 400 years later |
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Knitting together of old trade routes
Trade between China and Western world
China's false account of Roman Empire
Spread of Buddhism through Silk road from India to China to other Asian lands |
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(618-907)
Was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
It was founded by the Li (李) family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire
he dynasty was interrupted briefly by the Second Zhou Dynasty (October 8, 690 – March 3, 705) when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, becoming the first and only Chinese empress regnant, ruling in her own right
The Tang Dynasty, with its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the most populous city in the world at the time, is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization—equal to, or surpassing that of, the earlier Han Dynasty—a golden age of cosmopolitan culture
With its large population base, the dynasty was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with nomadic powers in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system
Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam
Drafting officials through standardized examinations
Considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry |
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(1114–1076 BC)
Was a king of Assyria during the Middle Assyrian period
Under him, Assyria became the leading power of the Middle East, a position the kingdom largely maintained for the next five hundred years
He expanded Assyrian control into Anatolia and Syria, and to the shores of the Mediterranean
From his surviving inscriptions, he seems to have carefully cultivated a fear of himself in his subjects and in his enemies alike |
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Reign (486-465 BC)
Was the fifth king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire
Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles in Greece
Xerxes had Athens burned. He almost immediately regretted this action and ordered it rebuilt the very next day
Greeks were mad one of their major cities were burned
Due to unrest in Babylon, Xerxes was forced to send his army home to prevent a revolt, leaving behind an army in Greece under Mardonius, who was defeated the following year at Plataea
The Greeks also attacked and burned the remaining Persian fleet anchored at Mycale
This cut off the Persians from the supplies they needed to sustain their massive army, and they had no choice but to retreat
Their withdrawal roused the Greek city-states of Asia
In 465 BC Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court |
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(3rd century BC-460s AD)
Ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty
Chinese sources from the 3rd century BC report them as having created an empire under Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 BC
After defeating the previously dominant Yuezhi in the 2nd century BC, Xiongnu became a dominant power on the steppes of eastern Asia
Chinese dynasties and the Xiongnu were complex, with repeated periods of military conflict and intrigue alternating with exchanges of tribute, trade, and marriage treaties |
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Is the name of God in the Bible
The word Yahweh is a modern scholarly convention for the Hebrew יהוה, transcribed into Roman letters |
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Definition
Was an imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the 2nd century BCE during the Han Dyasty
He was the first official diplomat to bring back reliable information about Central Asia to the Chinese imperial court, then under Emperor Wu of Han, and played an important pioneering role in the Chinese colonization and conquest of the region now known as Xinjiang
Today Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. In essence, his missions opened up to China the many kingdoms and products of a part of the world then unknown to the Chinese
Zhang Qian's accounts of his explorations of Central Asia are detailed in the Early Han historical chronicles, Records of the Grand Historian or Shiji, compiled by Sima Qian in the 1st century BCE |
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Definition
Was a prophet and the founder of Zoroastrianism who was either born in North Western or Eastern Iran
He is credited with the authorship of the Yasna Haptanghaiti as well as the Gathas, hymns which are at the liturgical core of Zoroastrianism
There is no consensus among scholars about the period of life, with the estimated dates of his birth range from 6000 BC to 400 BC
It is also possible that Zoroaster was a purely mythological person or that the writings attributed to him are actually the work of multiple authors who wrote under the same name |
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