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A term invented in the early 1790's referring to the lack of chic clothing in poor 3rd estate. Eventually the term came to represent the poorly equipped volunteers of the French revolutionary army. This later became a term to reference the radical egalitarian views of the french working class. now sans-culottism The sans-culottes were for the most part members of the poorer classes, or leaders of the populace, but during the Reign of Terror, public functionaries and persons of good education styled themselves citoyens sans-culottes. |
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| Basically the first large scale form of conscription in the French military. This was created due to the ever growing number of threats to the French state after the revolution. At one point France was at war with England, Prussia, Spain, Austria, and Piedmont. The idea was based on the new liberties given to the French people obligating to defend the nation that provided those liberties. Evasion and desertion were high but the tide of the war was turned. |
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| Before the Code, France did not have a single set of laws; laws depended on local customs, and often on exemptions, privileges and special charters granted by the kings or other feudal lords. The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French civil code, established under Napoléon I. It was drafted rapidly by a commission of four eminent jurists and entered into force on March 21, 1804. Ground breaking equality under the law for all citizens. |
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Confederation of German States |
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| The Confederation of German States occured in response to the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire. Formed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 what is now present day Germany was divided into several small principalities. The strongest of these principalities was Prussia whom eventually led Germany to complete unification under Kaiser William I after great success in the Franco-Prussian war. |
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tricolor cockades and liberty trees |
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| These were both symbols for nationalism in late eighteenth and mid to early nineteenth centurty European states. Libery trees represented a desire for freedom from oppression of feudal governments and the tricolor flags represented the national movement towards unification under a single banner. These movements were wildly popular in the French Revolution and the Italian Unification. |
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| Also known as the Peninsular Wars, this took place between France, Spain, England, and Portugal. France invaded and for the most part conquered Spain but ran into heaps of problems. The most devastating issue that they faced was the use of Guerillas by Spain that would not face a French army in open combat. Also the French could not invade England due to inferior naval power which meant that the Spanish rebels were continually well supplied. In 1814 the French were finally defeated after 7 years of hard fighting. |
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| This document officially declared France as a predominately Catholic nation which helped to mend some of the damage done by the revolution. The document gave the church the ability to depose bishops but in honesty the power was useless as the French government still nominated the bishops and paid their salary. The significance was that many of the french people were Catholic and desired the nation to maintain those ties |
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| Metternich, after the murder of a conservative official by a deranged liberal college student from The Confederation of German States, imposed restrictions on the German universities. The idea was to use the radical nature of this one student to convince the German officials to combat the nationalist and liberal tendencies in their principalities. The decrees were accepted and the universities were censored in 1819. Overall the nationalist tendencies were not stifled and in 1871 Germany became the German Empire under Kaiser William I. |
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| Opera was one of the few places in which a sort of subversive revolution could occur. The Berlin Opera actually voted in favor a raise for all of its employees. This shows one of the first union actions which gained publicity and moderate success. |
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| The festival was held with more than 30,000 in attendence as a disguise for more political motives. The demands of the people were Liberty, Civil Rights, and National Unity. No action was taken and many consider this gathering as a missed opportunity. At this rally however, the black gold and red colors of the German Flag were agreed upon. this took place in 1832. |
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all that is solid melts into air |
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| This is a quote from Carl Marx in The Communist Manifesto. The book deals with the modern concepts of commodities and capital having been transformed into arbitrary units of measurement. The idea is that modernization has brought about a destruction of society through the loss of finite values for various goods and services. Marx suggests that the |
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The rescue of the Danish Jews occurred during Nazi Germany's occupation of Denmark during World War II. When Hitler ordered that Danish Jews be arrested and deported on 1–2 October 1943, many Danes took part in a collective effort to evacuate the roughly 8,000 Jews of Denmark by sea to nearby Sweden. The rescue allowed the vast majority of Denmark's Jewish population to avoid capture by the Nazis and is considered to be one of the largest actions of collective resistance to repression in the countries occupied by Nazi Germany. As a result of the rescue and Danish intercession on behalf of the 5% of Danish Jews who were deported to Theresienstadt transit camp in Bohemia, over 99% of Denmark's Jewish population survived the Holocaust. |
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| A condition combining starvation and exhaustion that afflicted many concentration camp captives. The disease caused listlessness and a lack of care about impending fate amongst the Nazi camp jews. The condition actually affected their ability to stand and work causing many to sit or lie down. |
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| This was a territory created by the combination of Sicily and Naples in 1808 by Napoleon in order to create a puppet state for France. Jochim Murat, a marshal of Napoleon, was placed upon the throne. The territory was created by the Edict of Bayonne. It existed until eventually conquered by Garibaldi and The Thousand due to desent against the Bourbon king that was in charge of the state. |
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| This was a book written about a woman who finds out that her fiance was cheating on her. After learning of this she decides to live her life as she wishes, taking multiple partners and various other things. The book juxtaposes the gender roles of the time in which women were held to be quiet and demure. The idea at the time was very scandalous because it advocated womens civil liberties and freedom fromt he oppression of men. This all came about during the press for female suffrage in America making it even more controversial. |
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| Seigfried wrote poems about the harshness of world war I. At first he was a romantic about the war but over time came to realize the terrible nature of war. over time his views became very much antiwar and even though he was a terrific soldier he influenced modern poetry towards realism. |
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| David Livingstone was a British explorer in Africa who delved deeper into the core of Africa that any european ever had. He was actually lost to the rest of British society and H.M. Stanley was sent to find him. He died eventually in 1873 of malaria and dysentery but was celebrated as a hero in the eyes of the Britons. He was a missionary and his career was built up to make him a hero in order to further the cause of imperialism. At this time in history the people of the "civilized" western world viewed it as their duty to rule and "save" in a religious context the savages of Africa. |
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| Khartoum was the city in Sudan Africa where General Gordon made his last stand to maintain the British contol of the region despite having been ordered to abandon his post. He was killed after a seige in 1884. Eventually he was turned into a martyr and his death was used to rationalize the re-imperialization of the area in the beginning of the twentieth century. The significance is the overall imperialist nature of Europe during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The Eupopean powers had for the most part stopped fighting with each other face to face but rather preferred to race in the expansion of their territories on other continents. This lead to many wars being fought on foreign soil between western powers, which has been a theme in modern warfare continuing to today in wars such as Vietnam and Korea. |
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Wilfred Edward Salter Owen MC (18 March 1893 – 4 November 1918) was an English poet and soldier, regarded by many as one of the leading poets of the First World War. His shocking, realistic war poetry on the horrors of trench and gas warfare was heavily influenced by his friend Siegfried Sassoon and sat in stark contrast to both the public perception of war at the time, and to the confidently patriotic verse written earlier by war poets such as Rupert Brooke. Some of his best-known works—most of which were published posthumously—include Dulce Et Decorum Est, Insensibility, Anthem for Doomed Youth, Futility and Strange Meeting. His preface intended for a book of poems to be published in 1919 contains numerous well-known phrases, especially 'War, and the pity of War', and 'the Poetry is in the pity'.[1] He is perhaps just as well-known for having been killed in action at the Battle of the Sambre just a week before the war ended, causing news of his death to reach home as the town's church bells declared peace. |
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| This battle between French and German troops in 1916 resulted in nearly a quarter million dead soldiers. The battle is heralded as one of the bloodiest in history and stands as a testament to the atrocities that modern warfare has brought. Artillery and poison gas shells were used in this brutal battle that spared no one. This battle's reality stands in stark contrast to some of the views of the war both before and after as a romantic and glorious affair. |
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Prime minister of Piedmont founder of the original Italian Liberal Party Piedmont was the strongest territory in northern Italy Strong proponent for Italian Unification died just after the declaration of the Kingdom of Italy |
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| A french term that means to stroll or walk. This term was used by Charles Baudelaire as he discussed the need for society to stop and smell the roses. The significance is that this took place shortly after the industrial revolution in which peoples lives had come to revolve around work. Charles advocated walking aimlessly through the city without purpose and just experiencing it for what it was. |
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| This refers to the desire of the European people to spread their power over less advanced nations. The people of Europe desired to use the 3rd world nations primarily in Africa to fund an Empire and contribute to their battles against in continent rivals. This term also incorporates the feelings of many that the people of Africa were heathens that desperately needed to be brought to Jesus. The stories Charles Gordon and David Livingstone are examples of popular imperialism as they were turned into heroes for their exploration of Africa and in the case of Gordon his military "acheivements." |
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| Dix was another contributor to the realism movement that occured in art during the time of the two world wars. He demonstrated through his paintings the horrors of world war one in which he fought for the Germans. When the nazi's came to power they had him removed from his post in Dresden. His work stood in contrast to the glorious thoughts of war often conveyed in the pre-word war one era. |
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This was a revolution in Russia that was led mostly by the Mensheviks. The tsar Nicholas the second was forced to make concessions as workers striked across St. Petersburg and mutinies were committed on some Russian military vessels. This was a kind of a warm up revolution for the true revolution that would be led by the Bolsheviks in the upcoming decade. It was however a necessary step in the eyes of Lenin as he believed along with marx that there must be a bourgeois revolution and THEN a proletariat revolution. leading to the establishment of the State Duma of the Russian Empire, multi-party system and the Russian Constitution of 1906. |
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Wrote What is a Nation His definition of a nation was different from most which included race or ethnicity Ernest said that a nation was a group of people, that wanted to live together. his definition of a nation was very influential and came during the same time as the territorial dispute of Lorraine and Alsace which has changed hands between the Germans and the French many times in the past. |
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In 1830 there were two key revolutions in France and Belgium Both were successful in appointing Kings with titles that referred to the people This indicated that they no longer believed that they ruled by mandate from God but rather from the people. This was a victory in some sense for the liberals as in the past the kinds had stated that their power was ordained by God and therefore limitless. This showed a general trend towards liberalism that would later lead to a republic. |
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| The Lager was a term used for a work camp near Auschwitz in Primo Levi's Survival in Auschwitz. Primo Levi was sent their to manufacture synthetic rubber or "buna." the significance of this is that those who are sent to Lagers have a much better chance at surviving. Also if you are injured while at the Lager and it isn't too serious you get to go to an infirmary the "ka be". In this case Levi is able to go their and rest, which by all accounts saved his life long enough for his degree in chemistry to bail him out of working outside doing more physical labor. |
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In the early stages of Hitlers move towards World War II the world took a policy of appeasement. They thought that if they just gave Hitler and Germany what he asked for regarding Austria and Czechoslovakia that he would be passified. Chamberlain the Prime Minister decided to allow the people of Czekloslovakia to hold a plebiscites to decide which areas would be absorbed by Germany. Hitler renigged on this pact and sent troops into the sedetenland and spun slovakia off as a seperate country while take what he wanted of their territories. It wasn't until his invasion of Poland that the appeasement policy was completely abandoned. |
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| This is the strange hybrid of Polish and Latin that means selection in Primo Levi's Survival in Auschwitz. The selections were a random selection of individuals to be killed in the work camps. The people were selected for the most random of reasons. This was one of the reasons that Levi does not claim any particular reason being responsible for his surviving the camp. Who the Germans killed could be decided at any time for any reason. |
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| This is a form of government in which a selection of three or more people share power. The idea is that multiple people will be forced to try to maintain a balance of power. In most cases the officials are elected and then those elected officials hold sovereignty over their electorate. The United States, excluding the occassionaly referendum, is a polyarchy. We vote for a President, Senators, Congresspeople, and they appoint judges who rule over us. |
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The Fascisti Exposed Giacomo was perhaps the strongest outspoken voice against Mussolini in his push for power in Italy He was assassinated by people with the Fascist party His death caused a great deal of grief for the fascist and a general strike was threatened Mussolini managed to passify the people and move forward in his reach for power King Victor Emmanuel did nothing to Mussolini because he feared the rise of socialism and the removal of his monarchical post. |
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Mussolini organized a march of around 30 thousand people on Rome in order to usurp power He used the "Black Shirts" to usurp most of Italy's military strong holds. Fearing a civil war and being deposed by the socialist party the King appointed Mussolini as dictator of Italy. |
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Keynesian Economics The use of govenment spending to stop economic depressions used by FDR in an attempt to end the Great Depression Only moderately successful until the outbreak of World War II Obama wants to apply keynesian economics today in a focus on govenment spending on american infrastructure to end the recession. |
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I style of Italian Cinematography Italian neorealism is a style of film characterized by stories set amongst the poor and working class, filmed on location, frequently using nonprofessional actors. Italian neorealist films mostly contend with the difficult economical and moral conditions of post-World War II Italy, reflecting the changes in the Italian psyche and the conditions of everyday life: poverty and desperation. Main example is Umberto D. most popular in the 40's and 50's |
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| This was a term that really gained definition during the end of WW2. Millions of Jews had been forced to leave their homeland in eastern Europe. The allied powers created Displaced Person or Refugee camps for them in all over Europe. Never before had this problem of expelled citizens been dealt with in such grandeur. The typical solution was repatriation as fast as possible. Also millions of Germans were displaced from sudetenland and czechoslovakia in order to make sure Germany would have not ethnic claim to that land again. |
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| Utopian Socialism is the concept of a socialist society that comes about gradually through political change from within. This stands in contrast the marxist idea that a violent upheaval is needed to create a socialist state. Utopian socialism never really formulated any grounds for the creation of of a socialist environment but rather desired the existence of a perfectly socialist world in which the govenment controlled and shared all capital and commodities equally. Marx believed that a revolution was needed first for the bourgeois to take control and then for the proletariat to take control after that. This was the only way for a socialist environment to come about. |
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