Marwan II

1. Last Umayyad Caliph. Came to power in sucession struggle but was not in Damascus.
2. Tried to reorganize Umayyad power structure. Used Iraqi troops to attack Syrian troops.
3. Destroyed fortifications & broke up the army to limit the power of rivals.

Significance: In doing this he weakened his hold as well as other Umayyad (i.e. in Khurasan)

Abu Muslim

1. Freed Persian slave; converted to Islam
2. Leader, hero, almost considered a saint
3. Led Abbasid Revolution in Khurasan (747)
4. Not killed by Abbas, rather his bro Ja'far al-Mansure in 755.

Barmakids

1. High status family, 2nd in power during Sassanids
2. Rich, powerful, competent administrators
3. Became close to Abbasids who in turn put them into governorships. Later become "boon companions" (drinking buddies)

Significance: Becoming leaders' confidantes gave them a large amount of power and influence

Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah

1. Leader of the Abbasids
2. Took control of whole Muslim empire in 749
3. Killed everyone he could find of the Umayyads
4. Had Abu Muslim killed (by Ja'far al-Mansure)

Ali Rida

• Shia Imam #8
• Lived in Medina, not involved in politics.
• Ma'mun offered him Caliph, reluctantly agreed.
• Ali Rida & son both marry daughter of Ma'mun.
• 818: Drank pomegrante juice & died. Shi'ias believe Ma'mun poisoned him

Al-Mutawkkil

• R 847-861 Ended the Mihna
• Repressed Shi'is: Destroyed Husayn's grave, made farm land. Brought Egyptian Shi'is to Iraq to control. Took Oasis of Fadak from descendants of Ali (Umar II had given to them). Had short fat clown dance & say "I'm Ali!"
• Repressed Ahl al-Kitab (& Dhimmis): enforced dress code. Not allowed to ride a horse w/saddle. Height limit on houses. No new churches/crosses in public. Purged from high office.

Significance: shows a change from religious tolerance to a standard belief (beginning of Sunni)

Mahmud of Ghazna

• Ruled 998-1030
• Slave soldier
• Conquered part of India
• Appointed governor of Eastern Iran & became "independent"

Hallaj

• Died 922
• Sufi who believed he had reached total communion with G-d.
• Walked around saying, "I am G-d, I am G-d"
• Brutally executed

Rabi'ah

• Died 801
• Female mystic
• One of the first Sufis

(Abu Hamid) al-Ghazali 

-1058-1111. Born in Khurusan to artisan family
-1 of the most influential scholar in Islam. Long impact
-Had personal teacher as kid, read thousands of books
-Appointed prestigious/high post at Nizamiyyah.
-Wrote books on theology (Incoherence of Philosophers).

-Autobiography = most famous work

-Also wrote some about politics (Council of Kings)
-Believed that everyone should be Sunni

-Obedience is essential, no tyranny can justify otherwise
-Missing for 11 years, wandering Dervish. Said he was going on pilgrimage (believed success was keeping him from G-d)

Sufism

• Islamic mysticism.
• Whole universe=G-d= sum of creation.
• Great drama of humans is that we are separated from G-d b/c of our attachment (Nafs/ego) to the physical
• Nafs: pulls you away from G-d; source of all suffering
• Annihilation: Strive to overcome Nafs & literally become one w/G-.
• Religion goes thru the heart, not head. Less interested in rituals & revelations. Tend to see connection btwn religions.

Su'ubiyyah Movement

• Protest/debate against the practice of Identity. 
• Two sides: Shu'ubi vs Arab scholars
• Shu'ubi: growing portion of society. Express annoyance thru books/articles. Rally around Koran verse that says all Muslims equal. Mostly Persian.
• Scholars: attack on status is an attack on ancestors.

Debate suddenly ends after people begin to write in Persian

Identity (practice of)

Non-egalitarian nature of Arab society.

Root of Su'ubiyyah Movement

Aghlubids

• 800-809 in Tunisia.
• Berbers expressed resentment against authority by allying w/Kharijite troops.
• Expanded north into Sicily & Sardinia
• Eventually removed from power by Fatamids
• Contributed to breakdown of Abassid Caliphate (how?)

Saffarids

• 861-1003
• From (modern) eastern Iran
• Popular uprising forced Abbasids to recognize their independence

Tulunids

• 868-905, Egypt
• In 868 Abbasid Caliph sent Ahmed Ibn Tulun to command Egypt b/c it was rich (agriculture/irrigation)
• ibn Tulun broke ties with Baghdad, used taxes to build an army and invest in infrastructure.
• Empire crumbled in 908 (son/heir not proficient)

Zanj

• Revolt from 869-883
• Never as official as Aghlubids,Saffarids or Tulunids 
• Group comprised of former slaves brought from east coast of Africa to tip of Iraq to dry out marshland
• Start successful revolt in 869, guerilla warfare
• Crushed by Abbasids

Qarmatians

• Revolt in 10th century against Abbasids. 
• Sevener Shi'is. Close to Kharijites.
• Guerilla war. Conquer Mecca (steal Kaaba stone)
• Ultimately settle in lower Iraq (near modern UAE)

Fatimids

-10th century revolt/state. Shi'a dynasty
-Start in Tunisia, move towards Egypt.
-Started as messianic group, became Egyptian empire. Cairo = capital.
-These are the first Muslims Crusaders will encounter
-Deposed Hamdanids

Hamdanids

• 890-1004
• Start in Syria as governors
• Shia Muslim Arab dynasty in northern Iraq & Syria
• Tried to stop Byzantine advance but deposed by Fatimids

How did they opposed Abbasids???

Buyid

• 935-1055 have confederation that controlled the smaller states that comprised Iran/Iraq
• Twelver Shias from northern Iran.
• Founded: office of Amir al-Umara' (commander of commanders)
• Abbasids have little political power, Buyids leave Caliph for legitimacy (Shows Shias some power)
• These states dissolve w/Seljuk takeover in 1055

Council of Kings

Book written by al-Ghazali

Book of advice for kings

Stresses that rulers should be moral and just

Mozarabs

"Golden Age" of Muslim Spain

• 10th-13th centuries, also called Islamic Renaissance
• Began w/Abd-al-Rahman III restoring Umayyad power
• Centered around court in Cordoba (became larger than Constantinople)
• Islamic artists, poets, scholars, etc contributed to their fields by preserving earlier traditions & by adding their own innovations. 
• Most advanced farming in Europe, becomes economic center

'Abd al Rahman III

• Died 961. Ummayad Cordoba Emir & Iberian Caliph 
• Repelled the Fatimids by supporting their enemies & by declaring himself Caliph in 929 (This elevated emirate & competed in prestige w/Abbasid/Tunis Caliphs)
• Restored Ummayad power in al-Andalus & extended it to N. Africa. 

(Jalal ad-Din Muhammad) Rumi

• 13th C Persian poet, jurist, theologian, Sufi mystic
• Born in Khorasan, lived in Anatolia majority of life
• Developed Sufi dance & Persian poetry
• Followers formed Mawlawi Order (Whirling Dervishes)
• Wrote Masnavi (some Sufis call it the Persian Koran. One of the greatest works of mystical poetry)

Khorasan

• Geographic region in NE/E Persia
• Brought into Muslim world by Ummayads in 647
• Center of cultural awakening, man famous Persian poets, scientists & scholars from this region

Andalusia

• Region of south Iberia, name comes from al-Andalus
• Early 8th C conquered by Berber Tariq ibn Ziyad, became center of power w/Cordoba as capital

Anatolia

• Region in W Asia, mostly Turkey
• Byzantine control as challenged by Arab raids (7-10th C) In 9/10th C a stronger Byz regained lost land
• 1080: Seljuk Turks captured entire region
• Site of Mongol rebellions in the 13th C

Firdowsi

• Mid 10th- early 11th C
• Highly revered Persian poet
• Wrote the Shahnameh, the national Persian epic
• Witnessed Ghaznavid conquest of Samanids. Brought his "Great Book" to the new Ghaznavid king who seemed unimpressed (rejection of Persian traditions)

Shahnameh

• Written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi around 1000 AD
• "The Book of Kings"
• National epic of the Persian-speaking world
• Tells the mythical & historical past of Persia from the creation of the world thru Islamic conquest in 7th C
• Book was pivotal for reviving Persian language; 1st major work written in Persian

Harun al-Rashid

-Ruled from 786-809. Apex of Abbasid power.
-Most famous Abbasid Caliph.
-Established Bayt al-Hikmah. Science, culture, religion, art & music flourished during reign. 
-Almost mythical figure, lots of stories surround him
-Barmakid role declined during his rule
-Moved court from Baghdad to Ar Raqqah on Euphrates
-May have moved b/c of vicinity to Byz, great farming, easy to control any Syrian rebellion

Ali Rida

(Ali ar-Ridha)

• Descendent of Muh, 8th Imam
• Harun Rashid tried/failed to kill him
• al-Ma'mun attempted to win over Shi'as by naming Rida successor, didn't live long enough. Empty gesture (Rida old), alienated Shias from Abbasids (had been promised/denied Caliph before)
• Killed while traveling w/Ma'mun (probably poisoned)
• His in 818 is source of conflict betwen Sunnis & Shias

Tahirids

• Mid- Late 9th C. Persian Dynasty in Khorasan
• Nominally subject to Abbasids, fairly independent
• Founder: Ma'mun's general Tahir ibn Husayn
• Tahir was rewarded for exceptional service w/land
• Overthrown by Saffarid dynasty

Aghlabids

• 9th C dynasty of Arab emirs, ruled N Africa coast
• Al-Aghlab appointed hereditary Emir by Harun al-Rashid in response to anarchy in region.
• Independent in all but name. Dynasty always recognized Abbasids
• Decline: Lose land to Byz, attacked by Tulunids, repelled Berber revolt (large loss of life)
• Overthrown by new power of Fatimids

Saffarids

• Mid 9th- early 11th C Persian dynasty (Sistan region)
• Founded by as-Saffar (obscure coppersmith who rose to warlord)
• As-Saffar seized Sistan, aggressive expansion: overthrew Tahirids, annexed Khorasan. Almost reached Baghdad but suffered defeat.
• After as-Saffar's death all territory but Sistan lost, reduced to role of vassals to Samanids/successors

Tulunids

• Late 9th-early 10th C
• First independent dynasty in Islamic Egypt (broke away from Abbasid's, internal conflict made it easy)
• Ahmad ibn Tulun (founder) & son only efficient rulers. After them, Tulunids unable to resist Abbasid invasion (returned to caliph rule)
• Period marked by economic/admin reforms.

Khutbah

• Primary formal occasion for public preaching in Islam
• These sermons occur at the noon prayer on Fridays & on festival days.
• The mention of the ruler's name in the Khutbah was one of the two prerogatives of sovereignty (along w/minting coins). Omitting the name of a ruler from the Khutbah was publicly declaring independence.
• Khutbahs also announced the deposition/accession of a ruler, nomination of an heir, start/end of a war.

Qarmatians

• Late 9th C
• "Those who wrote in small letters"
• Shi'a Ismaili group, E Arabia, utopian republic (899)
• Fame: Revolt against Abbasids: Stole Kaaba stone, desecrated Well of Zamzam (w/Muslim corpses during Hajj)
• Ismailis = Sevener group (7th Imam still in hiding)

Qarmatian Revolution

-Change in leadership lead to split. Minority began to proclaim that the 7th Imam had died & that new leader was descendant

-Begins 100yr of terrorism in Kufa: Call Hajj a superstition, raid pilgrims. Kill 20,000 in 1 year.
-930: sacked Mecca & Medina (desecrate Well of Zamzam w/bodies of Hajj pilgrims, take Kaaba stone).
-952: Abbasids pay huge ransom for Kaaba stone
*Revolution/desecration shocked Muslim world, humiliated Abbasids. A can't stop: Q most powerful force in region, collect tribute from Baghdad/Cairo*

-985: Expelled from Iraq by Buyids

Jihad

• "Struggle." Religious duty.
• Struggle to improve one's self/society against Satan
• This is the only form of warfare allowed under Sharia
• Term is commonly used in fiqh books in reference to military combat
• Began early: Mu vs. Meccans
• Saladin: created doctrine/Jihad propaganda to unite forces, fight to bitter end (sin to abandon). Only way to reconquer land.

Iqta

• Began in 9th C
• "Tax farming" right appointed by Abbasid caliph
• Land granted to military officials in lieu of wages

Ascetism

• Lifestyle devoid of worldly pleasures (sex, alcohol)
• Sufism began as an ascetic movement (Sufi refers to rough woolen robe of the ascetic)
• Natural bridge from asceticism to mysticism
• Ascetic life paves way for absorption in Allah
• Meditation, Koran & praying to Allah lead to Allah

Silsilah

• "Chain," chain of masters Islam is taught thru
• Certification of a master having a verifiable chain of masters was only acceptable legitimation
• Similar certification as a university degree today
• Can be a partial knowledge or a book. Those who memorize/recite Koran are given a Silsilah linked to Muh

Zengi

• Late 11th- mid 12th C
• 1127/1128: United Mosul & Aleppo. Recognized ruler by Sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuk (supported against rival)
• 1130: Fought Crusaders (but only to extend power)
• 1134: Failed siege of Damascus

Pax Mongolica

-13th-14th Centuries

-"Mongol Peace," phrase coined by W scholars to describe the stabilizing effects of Mongol Empire conquests on social/cultural/economic life in areas conquered

-Eased communication/commerce created by unified admin

Bayt al-hikmah

-"The house of wisdom." Library created in 825 by Ma'mun

-Centered around translation of Byz/Syriac books. Includes Greek books on philosophy, medicine, history, science

-Increases production of books in empire

*This is a symbol of various cultures coming into Muslim world. Also beginning of the Golden Age of Islam.*

Mawali

-Type of client to Muslims.

-Non-Arab converts, join Arab tribe as a Mawali

-Treated as 2nd class members of tribe.

-Caused fragmentation in Abbasid Caliphate as non-Arab pop grew. Power constricted to Baghdad.

Nizam al-Mulk

-11th C Persian scholar & vizier of Seljuk Empire

-Wrote "Siyasat-Namah" (Book of Govt). Literary device for kings

-Religion is only good for ruling.

-Stressed development of road & safe-stops for caravans (placed 1 day travel apart)

-Very secular, except for disdain for Shi'as.

-Founded Nizamiyyah

Abbasid Caliphate

- Ruled 750-1258

-Ruled by Abbasid dynasty from Baghdad after overthrowing Umayyad caliphs from all but al-Andalus

-Strong force for first 2 centuries, but went into slow decline. W/in 150 years of gaining power forced to cede power to local rulers who only nominally acknowledged their power.

- Rule ended when Khan, Mongol conquerer Khan sacked Baghdad (1258)

Battle of Baghdad

-Invasion/siege/sacking of city in 1258 by forced allied under Khan (Mongol conquerer)

-Destroyed city. 100,000-1 million inhabitant killed

-Baghdad remained depopulated/in ruins for centuries

Saladin

-12th C Sunni. Led fight against Crusaders

-Sultan of Egypt/Syria

-Recaptured Palestine from Crusaders

-Created jihad doctrine (to leave fight is sin, etc)

-Celebrated example of chivalry in medieval Europe

Ja'far al-Mansur

-Late 8th C Abbasid Caliph

-Had Abu Muslim assassinated (755) to ensure bro would inherit Caliph. Rules out chance of power struggle. 

-Alienated Shiite groups by putting down rebellion

-Literature & scholarly work emerge in full force supported by new Abbasid tolerances for Persians & other groups suppressed by Umayyads.

Ahl al-Kitab

Dhimmi

"People of the Book"

Non-Muslim Abrahamic religions (J/C)

Dhimmi: non-Muslim subject of a Muslim state. Term connotes obligation of state to protect the individual. Required to pay jizya (extra tax)

Ahmed ibn Tulun

Founded Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt at end of 9th C

Originally sent by Abbassid caliph as governor to Egypt.

Established himself as an indepedent ruler

Ma'mun

-Abbasid Caliph. Persian mom. R early 9th C

-Fought brother al-Amin for Caliph when bro named son as heir in violation of al-Rashid's will. 

-Created Mihna in 833

Mihna

-15 year inquisition, lasting from 833 to ~848

-Create by Ma'mun

-Involved testing individual on view of Koran

-Wrong answers = dismissal from office, imprisonment, flogging

Nizamiyyah

-Medieval institution of higher education created in 11th C

-Established by Nizam al-Mulk

-Model for later Islamic religious schools

Great Seljuks

-Persian/Turkic Sunni Muslim dynasty from 1055-1137

-Empire was the target of First Crusade

-Marks beginning of Turkic power in ME

-Adopted Persian culture/language. Patrons of Persian culture, art, lit, lang. 

Seljuks of Anatolia

-R 1071-1277

-Prospered late 12-early 13th C thru trade, took Byz ports

-Facilitated trade thru caravan rest stops

-Bore brunt of Crusades, fell to Mongols in 1243