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Definition
When: Late 13- early 14th C
Where: England
Who: Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher, critic of the papacy (felt many popes were heretics). Rejected idea that you could prove the existance of G-d (opposed to Aquinas). Stressed faith over reason.
Sig: Major figure of medieval thought (was at the center of the major intellectual & politcal controversies). Very popular. |
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When/Where: s
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What: An Inquisition inspection made by clergyman authorised under canon law
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Sig: A |
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When: 15th- mid 17th C
Where: Bohemia
Who: One of two Hussites in Bohemia. Moderate (wanted communion w/bread & wine).
Sig: Won over the Taborites (radical group). Made a compromise with the Holy Roman Emperor making Bohemia the only region where laymen would receive communion in both types (bread & wine) |
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When/Where: Late 14th C. Vatican.
Who: Italian Pope. Not diplomatic (threatened to create new cardinals to dilute power. All non-Italian cardinals declared his election null b/c done under duress.)
Sig: Great Schism/Babylonian Captivity, Avignon Papacy (Clement VIII elected in direct response to him).
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When/Where: Died 1531, Switzerland
Who: Swiss Refomation leader. Educated (Uni Vienna, Uni Basel, scholarly center of humanism, influenced by Erasmus). Marburg Colloquy (met w/Luther. Agreed on some doctrine, no accord on Christ/eucharist). 1520s: controversy (attacked custom of fasting during Lent; wrote of corruption in hierarchy, pro clerical marriage, no images in church; intro new communion liturgy to replace mass). Eucharist as memorial. 1531: Blockaded Catholic cantons (respond w/attack, killed in battle)
Sig: Clashed w/Anabaptists (resulted in their persecution). Influence seen in the confessions, liturgy and church orders of Reformed churches today |
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Definition
When/Where: 1525 Upper Swabia (Holy Roman Empire)
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What: Part of the peasants' demands (raised towards Swabian League during Peasants' War). Summary of hundreds of other articles/grievances w/biblical references to support each (if proven unsupported, consider null).
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Sig: Widespread/influential (Printed 25K times w/in 2 months). Succintly called for end of feudalism. Luther against (Princes: fault. Peasants: force wrong; dont justify w/Gospel. Both: not good Christians) |
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When: 11-12 C (widely used), 14-16th C (criticized)
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What: Catholic theology; bread/wine transformed into Body/Blood of Christ in the Eucharist. Council of Trent 1551 approved term; Christ's presence literal truth w/no change in appearances
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Sig: Heavily criticized as imported/pseudo-philosophy. Contrast: Consubstantiation (Luther, sacrament of Body/Blood remain present alongside bread/wine), Memorial (Zwingli). |
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When/Where: Mid- Late 15th C, Spain
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Who: Spanish Dominican friar, first Inquisitor General of Spain, confessor to Isabella of Castile. Chief supporter of Alhambra Decree
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Sig: Known for zealous campaign against cyprto Jew/Muslims in Spain. |
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When/Where: Late 15- Early 16th C, Holy Roman Empire
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Who: Early Reformation theologian. Radical. Writings: angry, anticlerical, apocalyptic; continued revelation/prophecy, no infant baptism, Communion as symbol. Peasants' War leader (anti-Lutheran, supported Anabaptists). Captured, tortured, decapitated (recanted, accepted Catholic mass).
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Sig: Produced 1st completely German liturgy. Symbol of one of many theological directions which could've been taken by early Reformation. |
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When/Where: Died 1535, England.
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Who: Lawyer, scholar, author (Utopia reflects values of N humanists, downplay scholasticism, use reason w/religion), statesman. Ren humanist. Opposed Luther.
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Sig: Counselor to Henry VIII (executed for refusing to sign Act of Supremacy to split CofE from Rome). Refused to split with Rome |
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When/Where: Mid 16th C, Switzerland
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Who: Swiss theologian. Posthumously published argument that sins of Christians should be punished by state (not by Church withholding sacraments).
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Sig: Erastianism: generalization of his idea, state is supreme in church matters. |
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When/Where: Mid-Late 16th C, French born, Switzerland lived
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Who: Protestant theologian/scholar. Opposed absolute monarchy. Disciple of Calvin. Traveled/wrote to support prosecuted P. Proposed union of all P. Taught at Genevan Academy (Greek/Theology). Defended Calvin in court.
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Sig: New edition of Greek NT (columns, annotated; extensive knowledge of Biblical languages). Calvin's successor (orthodox). |
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When/Where: Mid 15- early 16th C. Saxony/ Wittenberg
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What: Dominican preacher accused of selling indulgences just outside Wittenberg (banned from city). Pope Leo X made commisioner to sell indulgences for all Germany (to fund St. Peter's Basilica)
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Sig: 95 Theses (believed his actions in part inspired Luther). Defended indulgences 2x against Luther (accused: sold full forgiveness for sins not yet commited, caused great scandal). Luther considered actions evil, openly preached against. |
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When/Where: 15th- Mid 17th C, Bohemia
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Who: One of two Hussite groups in Bo. Rejected anything not found in Bible (ex purgatory, 7 sacraments, veneration of saints, transubstantiation, etc). Family as only economic activity, end all luxuries. Zealous (some believe duty to slay all heretics)
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Sig: First intellectuals to leave scholastic methods. Radical departures from hierarchical medieval church. Predecessor to P, P reject same things 100 years later. |
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Definition
When/Where: Late 15th C-
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What: The common name of the Council of the Inquisition, controlled & organized by the Office of the Inquisitor-General (Torquemada). Members named directly by crown (no more than 10). Met every morning & for 2 hours on Tu/Th/Sa afternoons (morning: questions of faith, afternoon: inquisition cases).
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Sig: Over time, authority of Suprema grew at expense of Inquisitor General's. |
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Definition
When/Where: 1650 in Germany
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What: Device that removes gas from a sealed volume leaving a partial vacuum, vastly increased the height water could be pumped.
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Sig: W/o it, P Reformation wouldn’t have taken place in the way that it did. |
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Definition
When/Where: 16th C
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What: Radicalists who believed G-d was talking directly to them. Believed that spirits of the dead can be contacted by "mediums." Continued revelation and prophets (ex- Mormons).
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Sig: Fills void? |
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Definition
When/Where: 1478- 1834 Spain
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What: Tribunal started by Ferdinand/Isabella. Intended to maintain RC orthodoxy of recent converts (Isa convinced of crypto J), replace medieval inquisition (papal control). Head: Grand Inquisitor, Suprema. Biggest presence in Castile. Vast majority judged were J origin. J expelled b/c of harm to conversos 1483- 1492. M forced baptisms (early 16th C). M expelled 1609. Forced to leave wealth. Dealt little w/P. Censorship, bigamy, solicitation, blasphemy, sodomy, etc.
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Sig: Inquisition was the only institution that held authority across all Spanish realms. |
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Definition
When/Where: Late 15th C, Vatican
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Who: Pope. Renewed crusade against Ottomans. Continued dispute w/Louis XI (upheld Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, papal decree needs royal assent in FR). Founded Sistine Chapel. Created Spanish Inqusition thru Papal bull (Ferdinand pressured). Involved in Pazzi Conspiracy (attempts to kill Medici family members)
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Sig: Rampant nepotism. Marks trend of Popes more concerned w/mundane & secular. |
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When/Where: 11/12th C prevalent, 13th C highly criticized by Dante
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What: The crime of paying for holy offices or positions in Church hierarchy. Included sale of tithes, taking of a fee for confession/absolution/marriage/burial, etc. Condemned by Dante, Machiavelli, Erasmus.
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Sig: Caused serious harm to the moral standing of Church. |
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Definition
When/Where: Mid 16th C
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What: French preacher/theologian. Early proponent of freedom of thought/conscience. Considered one of most learned men of day, equal or superior to Calvin. Saw P killed, turned to P, missionary, only one willing to give last rites during Genva plague. Conflict w/Calvin: endorsed diff French translation of Bible, left College, critical of Servetus' execution, argued that heretic was a relative term.
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Sig: Promoted concept of limited gov't, separation of Church/state, anti-theocracy. |
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When/Where: 8th C, Highpoint: 13/14th C
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What: Catholic movement. Believed in union btwn philosophy/theology; purpose was to find answer to questions & resolve contradictions. Most prominent: Aquinas/Augustine.
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Sig: Married Christian sensibilities to Greek philosophy.
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When/Where: Mid 16th C, Holy Roman Empire
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What: Defensive alliance of Lutheran princes in HRE. Must agree w/Augsburg Confession. Francis I joined (ally against Habsburgs, later retract). Existed for 15 yr w/o opposition. Schmalkaldic War (Charles V). Augsburg Interim.
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Sig: Orig started for religious reasons, later intended for League to replace HRE as source of politcal allegiance (had substantial military to defend politcal & religious interests; Breaking from Church offered significant economic advantages.) |
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When/Where: 1546-1547, Saxony/HRE
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What: Charles made peace w/FR, moved to suppress P w/in empire. League had better military but poor leadership. Charles/Pope win, force reconversion of 30 cities
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Sig: Forced Schmalkaldic League to agree to Augsburg Interim. But, P too established, can't be ended by force. Ended all of Charles' hopes of religious unity in empire |
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Term
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Definition
When/Where: Throughout, but especially during Spanish Inquisition.
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What: Pentinent garment, worn at an auto de fe. Heretics found guilty had to wear/walk procession.
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Sig: Signifies condemnation to burn at stake. Hung as mementos of disgrace in churches, especially offensive b/c of Spanish notions of honor. |
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When/Where: 14-17th C. Began in Italy
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What: Attempt by intellectuals to study/improve the secular & worldly thru revival of ideas from antiquity & novel approaches to thought. Printing press (most books religious).
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Sig: Luther, etc inspired by this "rebirth," looked for religious rebirth. Increased laity education (Ref more world changing) |
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When/Where: Developed througout 16th C
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What: Calvinism, Melanchthon. Five Points: total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, perserverance of the saintsm nature of atonement. Denounced the exaggerated cult of saints, idoltry in communion, coercion in penance; couldn't guarantee salvation.
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Sig: Set stage for capitalism in N Europe (allow interest charges, profit in general). Arminianism grew in opposition (school of salvation thought w/in P) |
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Definition
When/Where: 1517-1648
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What: Start: 95 Theses, end: Peace of Westphalia. Began as attempt to doctrinally reform RC. Central criticisms: indulgences, non-vernacular, absenteeism, etc, evidence of systemic corruption incl Pope. Leaders: Erasmus, More, Zwingli, Luther, Calvin. Aided by printing press.
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Sig: Triggered C Counter Reformation. Established P as a branch of C. |
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Definition
When/Where: 16th C, beginning in Germany/Switzerland
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What: Response to RC corruption & expansion of Lutheranism. Includes: Munzter, Adreas Karlstadt, anabaptists, Mennonites, etc. Group was tiny, lit vast. Formed small communities outside state sanction, employed more extreme doctrinal change (reject Councils of Nicaea/Chalcedon). Adult baptism.
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Sig: Rejected Church authority almost entirely (other P wanted to switch one elite for another) |
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Definition
When/Where: mid 17th C England
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What: Founded by George Fox/Dissenters (seperated from CoE). Restoration of true church after centuries of apostasy. Practices and beliefs vary greatly among the group. Christ: word of G-d (reject sola scriptura). Little concern w/theology, focus on acting w/the Spirit. Plain calendar
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Sig: Very radical, huge divergence from RC and P |
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Definition
When/Where: Mid 15th C, Germany
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What: Mechanical device, printed books w/movable type; efficient. Renaissance & Reformation both rely on printing press, both lay movements.
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Sig: Majority of books printed were religious. Education of the laity increased because of the Renaissance. The Reformation was a world changing event, way more than the Renaissance. |
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Term
| Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges |
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Definition
When/Where: 1438, France
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What: Result of Council of Ferrara. Issued by Charles VII. Required: General Church Council held every ten years(w/authority superior to Pope); election to church offices; prohibit Pope bestowing/profiting from benefices; limited appeals to Rome. Crown used promise of repeal as bargaining chip, make Pope favor France.
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Sig: Prelude to Reformation, secular taking power from sacred. French church declared admin indepedence from Rome. |
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Definition
When/Where: Throughout RC
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What: Holding multiple church offices at once. Encouraged by the Avignon Papacy. One of the gripes P had against C
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Sig: Decreases Church's moral authority. Agitates P |
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When/Where: Mid 16th C, HRE
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Who: Reformer, collaborated w/Luther (primary founder, intellectual leader of Lutheranism). Denounced the exaggerated cult of saints, idoltry in communion, coercion in penance; couldn't guarantee salvation. Distinction btwn law (papacy) & gospel (directly confronting Christ thru Bible, prayer).
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Sig: First systematic theologian of the P reformation. Primary founder of Lutheranism alongside Luther. |
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When/Where: Late 13-early 14th C France
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What: King of France. Pope Boniface VIII (had arrested in Rome, imprisioned, abused, released, died w/in days). Expelled clergry from all participation in the admin of law.
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Sig: Reign exacerbated conflicts btwn Rome & monarch. |
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When/Where: Thru entire church history
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What: Assertion of universal jurisdiction of Bishop of Rome. Developed by Pope Leo I. Church is built upon Peter, participates in everything; true of successors. Upheld belief that papacy was created by G-d. Increasingly challenged over time.
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Sig: Papacy's power is divine, delegated from Christ over entire Church. |
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When/Where: 1524-1526, Germanic regions of HRE
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What: Incited by changes in social/economic structure (new social classes didn't fit in feudal hiearchy). Twelve Articles. Munzter. 100K die.
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Sig: Destroyed feudalism, lesser nobility/knights. Subject to the princes in most states. Luther condemns actions. |
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When/Where: Late 15th C Florence
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What: During Papacy of Sixtus IV; attempt to kill Medici family. Assasination intended during mass (raised chalice = holiest moment). Medicis stood in way of ambitions. Sixtus knew & approved of plan. Failed.
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Sig: Pope concerned w/mundance/secular. Not holy; sinful. |
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When/Where: Middle ages- late 17th C, throughout RC
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What: Favortism granted to relatives/friends w/o regard to merit. Name from Middles Ages Church practice of popes/bishops appointing newphews; continuation of a papal "dynasty." Ex- Paul III appointed teenage nephews Cardinals.
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Sig: Grievance of P against RC |
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When/Where: 13-14th C, Rhine River
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What: Belief that a person can have direct, personal relationship w/G-d. Great Schism in late 14th C left spiritual vacuum, led to rise in mysticism. Reaction to scholasticism (people want to have direct contact, experience). Outlet for those upset w/Church corruptions, Pope.
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Sig: Stirs up desire for G-d w/in Church before the Reformation. |
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When/Where: 1534-1535, Germany
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What: Anabaptists, led by John of Leiden, took power in the Munster Rebellion. Founded a socialist state (claimed all property, burned all books except Bible), called it New Jerusalem. Preparing for Second Coming. Recaptured in 1535, tortured to death.
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Sig: Killed as warning to other radical groups. |
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Definition
When/Where: 16th C+, Spain
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What: Catholic of Muslim heritage in Spain/Portugal. Over time term applied as a perjorative to nominal Catholics suspected of secretly practicing Islam.
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Sig: Change in meaning represents shift in public opinion |
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When/Where: Mid 16th C, Spain
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Who: Reformation theologian/humanist (condemned by BOTH). Arrested in Geneva, burnt as heretic by P Geneva gov't. Author ("On the Errors of the Trinity" & "The Restitution of Christianity")
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Sig: Heretical mainly b/c he didn't believe Christ was co-eternal w/G-d. Death sparked controversy (religious persecution) |
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When/Where: Early- mid 16th C, Low Countries
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What: Dutch Anabaptist religious leader, followers: Mennonites. Saw church as disciplined group of voluntarily committed people.Theology: Idealized woman's status (Bride of Christ, full of love/devotion), adult baptism (Luther defended infant), piety/peace, aceticism.
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Sig: Sustained/established Anabaptist movement as a viable Radical Reformation movement. |
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When/Where: Late 13- early 14th C, Germany
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What: Dominican mystic. Prominent during Avignon Papacy. Tried to form a perfect spiritual relationship w/G-d (Divine Spark: if totally passive, G-d enters soul). Wrote on metaphysics & psychology; preached in Latin & German. Tried as a heretic (unorthodox teachings suspicious), died before verdict.
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Sig: His work was pivotal in provoking Luther's actions and subsequent Reformation |
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d 1342
Marsilius of Padua was a critic of the Avignon Papacy. He was Italian. He favored lay sovereignty of the Church. He wrote Defender of Peace (1304) which was inspired by a philosophical movement: nominalism, which discusses universals. What ultimately is real? Plato said that the real world is a world of ideas. Nominalists said that these universals were just names. If only individual things exist, then what is the Church? It is the sum of all believers. They believed the sovereignty of the Church rests with its members. They denied that the papacy was created by God; the pope was an executive of the secular, it was created by the Christian community. They believed that the Church did not have the right to political power; state reigned supreme. |
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When/Where: Early 16th C, Marburg/Germany
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What: Meeting between Luther and Zwingli to discuss theology. Ultimately they differed over their theology of constubstantiation.
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Sig: Attempt to create a unified Protestant church |
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1513- 1521
Leo X was Pope from 1514 to 1521. He was a member of the Medici family. He was the Pope in power at the outbreak of the Reformation. He is known primarily for the sale of indulgences to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica and his challenging of Martin Luther's 95 Theses. Leo failed to fully comprehend the importance of the Protestant movement for over a year. Neither the arguments of the cardinal at Augsburg, nor Leo's dogmatic papal bull requiring all Christians to believe in the pope's power to grant indulgences, moved Luther to retract his 95 Theses. Another Papal bull issued by Leo X (1520) condemned 41 propositions from Luther’s teachings and was taken to Germany by Eck. Leo X then excommunicated Luther in another Papal bull (1521). He also directed the Holy Roman Emperor to take measures against heresy. |
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When/Where: 16th C Italy
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What: Founders of Socianism. Didn't think Jesus was G-d in human form. Referred to themselves as Unitarians. Rejected orthodox Christian theology on G-d's knowledge, the Trinity and divinity of Christ.
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Sig: Tried to simplify Christianity, vindicate human reason over supernatural |
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1503-1513
Julius II was Pope from 1503 to 1513. He was Italian. He was known as the “warrior Pope” because it was interested in fighting. He was also nicknamed the “terrible Pope.” His reign was marked by an aggressive foreign policy, ambitious building projects, and patronage for the arts. He was interested in the mundane aspects of papacy. He told Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Julius formed the Anti-Venetian League against Venice, and defeated Venice in 1509. Then Julius II allied with Venice against the Holy Roman Emperor. |
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-Early to mid 16th C, French.
-Lived most of life in Geneva
-Attracted to humanism of Erasmus.
-Affair of the Placards: flee FR, Francis I prosecuting Protestants
-Double Predestination: both saved/damned predestined. Luther only believed saved were predestined(single) (Luther didn't believe in devil)
-Opposed singing anything other than Psalms.
-Martin Bucer was a father figure to Calvin
-Designated four chuch offices: Pastors, teachers, elders & deacons
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d. 1384
John Wycliff was from England. He had a doctorate in theology. He was a Dominican. He was known as an early dissident in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. His followers were called Lollards, a somewhat rebellious movement which preached a legalistic Gospel. The Lollard movement is considered a precursor to the Protestant Reformation. He was protected by John, son of the King of England. He claimed that princes could take land away from the Church to protect the Church from being corrupt. He rejected transubstantiation: bread and wine as the body and blood of Christ. But he still believed in a spiritual presence of Jesus. He gave a lot of importance to the Bible. His interest in the Bible inspired the translation of the Bible into English. He completed his translation directly from the Vulgate into vernacular English, now known as Wycliff's Bible. He believed the true church was of the elect. He was inspired by Augustine in the 5th century, who had the idea of two cities: one of God and one of man. He thought the papacy was a human creation. He was one of the earliest opponents of papal authority influencing secular power. In radical times he said the pope was the anti-Christ. He got away with this because England was at war with France and very busy. The Church took action in 1415, and called him a heretic (after his death). A lot of his views resemble Luther and Calvin. |
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d 1415
John Huss was born in Bohemia. He was a Czech priest, philosopher, and reformer. He wasn’t nearly as radical as Wycliff. He was a key predecessor to the Protestant movement of the 16th century. He questioned the utility of indulgences. He objected to the fact that the laity was only receiving the bread, and not both the bread and wine. At the Council of Constance (early 15th C) the Emperor gave him a safe conduct pass. He refused to reject all of Wycliff’s ideas. Wycliff was declared a heretic. The Church authorities persuaded the Emperor that a heretic could not be given a safe pass. He was burned at the stake in 1415 for the propagation of what the Catholic Church considered to be his heretical views of ecclesiology, the Eucharist, and other points of theology, as the civil authorities of that time generally saw heresy as a criminal offense. Huss’ teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe, most immediately in the approval for the existence of a reformist Bohemian religious denomination, and later on Martin Luther himself. |
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d. 1519
John Colet was an English scholar, Renaissance humanist, theologian, and Dean of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Colet was interested in the New Testament Epistles of Paul. Paul talked about the sinfulness of man; Colet was sympathetic of Paul’s view of humanity. Colet used all of his money for his new school. They read Christian sources in their original language (Greek or Latin) and interpreted the Bible as part of their course work. The Bible had a history and was treated as a historical document. Colet was influenced by humanism and Philology. Colet is an important early leader of Christian humanism as he linked humanism and reform. Colet influenced Erasmus, a key figure in Christian humanism. |
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d. 1536
Jacques Lefevre d’Etaples was a French theologian and humanist. He was influenced by mysticism. In 1505, he declared Scriptures to be the sole source of religious matters. He completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1528, and was famous for his French translation of the Psalms (1509) and the Epistles of Paul (1512). His completed translation of the entire Christian Bible, published in 1530, was the first in the French language. Lefevre expressed a strong belief in predetermination. |
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| Humanism was born in Italy. Petrarch was one of the first humanists. Humanism was a return to the sources: classical Latin and Greek. Philology played a big role in humanism. English humanism reached its peak with Sir Thomas More in the mid 17th century. French humanism developed more slowly than English (Jaques Lefevre). Humanism also spread to Spain and Germany. Humanism in Spain was influenced by the Complutensian Polyglot Bible and the creation of the University of Alcala by Cardinal Cisneros. Humanism in Germany was dominated by Reuchlin, Pfefferkorn, and Hutten. |
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When/Where: Mid to Late 16th C, Zurich
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What: Zwingli's successor. Same idea about discipline, city council had right to excommunicate. The reform movement in Zurich joined w/that in Geneva under him.
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Sig: Joined Zwingli's followers with Geneva/Calvinism. First time we see two major groups joining. |
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d 1384
Gerhard Groote was a Dutch preacher during the 14th century. Groote advocated a form of piety called modern devotion (Devotio Moderna). He founded the Brethren of the Free Life, or the Brethren of the Common Life, which stressed education of a practical nature. He established a school in the Rhineland area. He didn’t show interest in theology or rituals. He stressed ethics, or putting the Golden Rule into practice. He preached against concubinage, the prevailing sins of the laity, heresy, simony, and impurity among the secular and regular clergy; he provoked the hostility of the clergy, and accusations of heterodoxy were brought against him. |
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When/Where: Established mid 16th C, Geneva/Switzerland
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What: Trained future leaders of Geneva & the Reformed Church. Part college, part seminary. Pastors trained here would be sent out all over Europe
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Sig: Created well educated clergry. Helped make Geneva center of Reformed Protestantism |
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Late 12th - early 13th C
Saint Francis of Assisi was a Catholic Deacon and the founder of the Franciscans. In 1209 he went to Rome to seek permission from the Pope (Innocent III) to found a new religious order. The Pope agreed to admit the group. Many of the stories about St. Francis deal with his love. He believed that the world was created good and beautiful by God but suffered a need for redemption because of the primordial sin of man. His beliefs were conventionally Christian. Some his St. Francis’ views are considered to be mystic in nature. |
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When/Where: Starting late 15th C, Spain
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What: Informers of the Spanish Inquisition. Familiars were lay servants of the Inquisitor Generals who had the right to bear arms. Comsarios were local parish priests who supplied information.
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Sig: Inquisitors operated by emphasizing fear; they can't be everywhere, but they're spies are and are waiting to tell |
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Term
| Evangelical Rationalists* |
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When/Where: Late 17th C
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What: Prominent: Michael Servetus, Lelio & Fausto Sozzini, Sebastian Castello.
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Sig: A
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d 1536
Erasmus was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, a Catholic priest and theologian. He was born into the Brethren of the Common Life. He was an Augustinian monk, but received papal dispensation to leave the monastery and study at a college in Paris. He has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists." He prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. These raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation. Erasmus lived through the Reformation period and he consistently criticized some contemporary popular Christian beliefs. In relation to clerical abuses in the Church, Erasmus remained committed to reforming the Church from within. He also held to Catholic doctrines such as that of free will, which some Protestant Reformers rejected in favor of the doctrine of predestination. He feared the social and political consequences of the Reformation. His middle road disappointed and even angered many Protestants, such as Martin Luther, as well as conservative Catholics. He differed with Luther fundamentally concerning the relationship between man and divine grace. |
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13th c. – present)
The Order of Preachers or more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans was founded in the 13th century to preach the gospel and combat heresy. It is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic in France. It was approved by the Pope a few years later. It quickly spread to England. The 13th century is the “classic age” of the order. Its missions spread to the north of Europe, to Africa, and to Asia. Through preaching, the Dominicans reached all classes of Christian society. An enormous number of its members held offices in both the Church and State (popes, cardinals, bishops, legates, inquisitors, confessors, ambassadors…). It struggled against pagan tendencies in Renaissance humanism. The Dominicans were prominent in all Catholic Inquisitions. |
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| The Reichstag or Diet was the legislative part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Diet chose emperors (electors). There was a Curia of Princes composed of dukes and archbishops. There was also a Curia of Free Cities that included 65. |
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When/Where: 1521, Worms/HRE
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What: Called by Charles V. Luther summoned to renounce/reaffirm his views (gave famous "I cannot & I will not recant" speech); after went into hiding for fear of arrest, punishment; excommunicated by Leo X, condemned as heretic
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Sig: Forced Luther to make a formal and irrevocable split with Church. |
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| Gerhard Groote was a Dutch preacher during the 14th century. Groote advocated a form of piety called modern devotion (Devotio Moderna |
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14-15th C
Conciliarism, or the conciliar movement, was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that the final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as a corporation of Christians, embodied by a general church council, not with the pope. The movement emerged in response to the Avignon Papacy; the popes were removed from Rome and subjected to pressures from the kings of France – and the ensuring schism. The Great Schism nurtured the belief in conciliarism. This is very important in the 14th and 15th centuries. The schism inspired the summoning of the Council of Pisa, the Council of Constance, and the Council of Basel. In 1512, the papacy was the confirmed final authority and conciliarism was considered dead. |
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1409
The Council of Pisa met in the early 15th century to end the Western Schism. Instead of ending the Western Schism, the Council elected a third papal claimant, Alexander V, who would be succeeded by John XXIII. Now there were 3 popes and 3 colleges of cardinals. This led to the calling of the Council of Constance and the Council of Basel. |
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1438
When the Council of Basel moved to Ferrara, in the mid-15th century, it became known as the Council of Ferrara. It was moved because of a result of negotiations with the East. A large majority of the people in Basel obeyed and came to this council. Its first act was to declare the Council of Basel transferred to Ferrara and to nullify all further proceedings at Basel. Pope Eugene IV excommunicated all who continued to assemble at Basel. Those still in Basel deposed Eugenius and elected Felix V as pope. This led to the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges which gave the King of France the right to appoint Church offices in France (1438). This Council marked the end of the conciliar movement. |
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| The Council of Constance was called by John XXIII and met in 1414. It wanted to end the Schism, eliminate heresy, and reform the Church. John abandoned the council, but Church representatives remained in Constance. A Declaration of the Authority of the Council was passed which discussed the power of the council and of the conciliators. The Council deposed John. The Roman pope (Urban VI) was convinced to resign. The pope in Avignon (Clement VIII) did not resign; he was supported by Spain for a while. When the Spanish Kings stopped supporting Clement, the Schism ended (1417). The Council is important for its relationship to the development of Conciliarism and Papal supremacy. |
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When/Where: Late 14th C- Late 15th C
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What: Recent converts from J to C. Many retained non-religious habits/tendencies that seemed suspicious to many Catholics. Ferdinand & Isabella decided expulsion of all J best (bad influence on conversos).
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Sig: A |
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When/Where: 16th C Geneva
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What: The Consistory was an ecclesiastical court composed of lay elders and ministers
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Sig: Entrusted with the responsibility that Reformed Calvinist mentality was being respected. No seperation of Church and State
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| Condign Merit vs Congruent Merit |
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| Condign merit is described as merit awarded because it was fully deserved. It is in opposition is congruent merit. Condign merit, St. Thomas Aquinas taught, can only be awarded in recognition of the work of the Holy Spirit in the individual. Congruent Merit was described as half-merit or merit awarded by divine generosity in view of imperfect human works. Merit is awarded when the individual does what he or she is able to do and God responds with the gift of needed merit. Nominalists in the 14th and 15th centuries believed in this type of merit. |
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Goote (mid 14th C) preached against.
Avignon Papacy allowed |
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d 1394
Clement VIII was elected pope in Avignon when Urban VI’s election was declared null. There was an argument over who was the true pope which resulted in the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, or the Great Schism. The Catholics were divided. England was at war with France so they supported Urban VI as pope in Rome. Scotland recognized Clement VIII in France as the true pope. The Holy Roman Emperor supported Urban VI, but his subordinates supported Clement VIII. |
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1523- 1534
Clement VII was Pope from 1523 to 1534. He was a member of the Medici family. He was a patron of the arts. He had Michelangelo to paint the last judgment scene behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel. He was more interested in mundane affairs than religious affairs. He spent a lot of money on the Renaissance. Most of the revenue of the papacy came from the papal states. The most importance expense was on defense (war). Lay rulers had more authority over the Church; the popes needed the support of the lay rulers to accomplish tasks. |
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| Church Triumphant/ Church Militant |
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| The Catholic Church, or the Church Universal is divided into the Church Triumphant and the Church Militant. The Church Triumphant, known only to God, was comprised of those who were saved and were now in Heaven. The Church Militant was comprised of the visible Church on earth. |
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| Charles V was the most powerful man in Europe during and after the Reformation. He was the Holy Roman Emperor, the King of Spain (Charles I of Spain), and the Sovereign of the low countries. He had more territory than anyone in Europe since Charlemagne. He was the son of Philip I of Castile. He is most well known for his role in opposing the Protestant Reformation, and the convocation of the Council of Trent. As Holy Roman Emperor, he called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms (1521). He later outlawed Luther and his followers. Charles delegated increasing responsibility for Germany to his brother (Ferdinand). In 1546 he outlawed the Schmalkaldic League. At the Augsburg Interim (1548) he created an interim solution that gave allowances to Protestants until the Council of Trent restored unity. However, Protestants mostly resented the Interim and some actively opposed it. Protestant princes rebelled against Charles V (1552) which caused him to retreat to the Netherlands. |
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When/Where: Early to Mid 16th C, Holy Roman Empire
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What: Protestant reformer, spiritualist. Influenced by Muntzer & Karldstadt. Fell out of favor w/Luther over Eucharist controversy.
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Sig: His ideas influenced Anabaptism, Puritanism, Pietism |
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13-14th C
The Brethren of the Free Spirit was a 14th century lay Christian movement that flourished in northern Europe. It wasn’t orthodox or heretic. It had pantheistic beliefs; the belief that God is in everything, and there is no separate heaven or hell. They believed that they had become united with God – that they had become God. Where people ceased to find the spiritual answers they sought from Rome, dissident movements like the Brethren sprang up all across Europe preaching an alternative view of Christianity. As with most heresies they fell foul of the Church and underwent considerable persecution at the hands of the temporal and spiritual authorities of the time.It came into conflict with the Church and was declared heretical by Pope Clement V. This group disappeared within decades. |
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1294-1304
Boniface VIII was the Pope at the time of Philip IV. They had issues with each other. Philip’s authority to tax in France and jurisdiction over clergy bothered Boniface. He believed that no secular authority could control clergy. When Philip IV arrested a French Bishop, Boniface addressed him in Unam Sanctum (1302) and addressed him rudely (“listen son” and “You don’t have the right…”). He also said that everyone, including the King of France, was subordinate to the pope. Boniface was arrested by Philip IV and died shortly after. |
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| Originally a benefice was a gift of land for life as a reward for services rendered. The Benefice System was a concept used by the Roman Catholic Church. It came to mean an income enjoyed (often linked to land) by a priest in chief of an ecclesiastical office. Each benefice had a number of spiritual duties attached to it. For providing these “spiritualities” a priest would receive pay. From the medieval period onward, priests administered sacraments and usually provided other services as well. The community was to provide for the priest as necessary, often in the form of a land-based tithe. The elite provided patronage and made significant donations. This created enormous wealth in the hands of the Catholic Church. Over time, this system was abused throughout Europe. As benefices came to priests due to feudal patronage and political considerations, priests occasionally held more than one benefice, known as pluralism). This quite often resulted in absenteeism, where the priest would not take care of his benefice. Pluralism was often seen as a good investment for a family that could afford to buy a position (simony) for a younger son. The position would allow the family to carry favor in the Church and serve to guarantee a future for the appointee. The corruption called for ecclesiastical reform in the church in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther, started as a significant leader in this drive for internal reorganization — ultimately starting the Protestant Reformation After the Reformation, the new churches generally adopted systems of ecclesiastical polity that did not entail benefices. |
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13-14th C
Beguines were Roman Catholic lay religious communities active in the 13th and 14th century, living in a loose semi-monastic community but without formal vows. They were women who would come together, give up their possessions, and support themselves. They were not sanctioned by church officials. The Beguine could hardly be called a nun; she took no vows, could return to the world and wed if she would, and did not renounce her property. Roman Catholic leaders were very uncomfortable with this group. The Beguines were in the low countries and Paris. About the beginning of the 13th century some of them grouped their cabins together, and the community thus formed was the first Beguinage. As the 13th century progressed they tended to become mystics and relied less and less on their own labor, often turning to begging instead. In some cases, this shift toward mysticism caused problems for the Beguines. Pope Clement V accused the Beguines of spreading heresy, and they were frequently persecuted by the papacy as time went on. They were rehabilitated in the 15th century by Eugenius IV. Most of these institutions were suppressed during the religious troubles of the 16th century. |
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When/Where: Early 16th C, Augsburg/HRE
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What: Charles V called on Princes, free territories of HRE to explain religious convictions. Written by Melanchthon. Two marks of true church: preached true Gospel & administered sacraments rightly.
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Sig: Princes agree to ally in event of Charles V taking action; leads to Schmalkaldic League.
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1548
The Augsburg Interim (1548) Charles V created an interim solution that gave allowances to Protestants until the Council of Trent restored unity. Although it ordered Protestants to readopt traditional Catholic beliefs and practices, including the seven Sacraments, it allowed for Protestant clergymen the right to marry and for the laity to receive communion in both kinds (bread and wine). However, Protestants mostly resented the Interim and some actively opposed it. Protestant princes rebelled against Charles V (1552) which caused him to retreat to the Netherlands. |
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When/Where: Early 16th C, Holy Roman Empire
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What: Theologian. Debated Eck at Leipzig Debate. Denied the physical, but affirmed the spiritual presence of Christ in the communion. Non-violent (like Luther).
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Sig: Influence on P: removal of the writing w/questionable validity from Protestant Bibles, the abolition of mandatory celibacy |
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When/Where: Began 16th C, Holy Roman Empire
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What: Early: Believed Reformation must purify theology & actual lives of C; Matter of individual conviction, can't be forced. Later: much smaller, focused on forming small, separatist communities. Adult baptism.
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| Alexander VI was Pope from 1492-1503. He was the nephew of Sixtus IV. He was from the Bourges family of Spain (Bourgia). His son, Cesare, was extremely ruthless; he was Machiavelli’s prototype prince. Cesare was named Cardinal. Alexander VI promoted his own family (nepotism) like many other Popes of the time. Alexander VI was not able to influence the papal election to get Cesare to be the next pope. His papacy was extremely corrupt. He is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, and his last name (Bourgia) became a byword for the debased standards of the papacy of that era. |
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| Spiritual Franciscans thought other Franciscans were deviated from the life of poverty (including the pope). In contrast to humble life of St. Francis. |
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| Philology means “love of the word.” It means that language has a history. The Oxford-English Dictionary deals with this. Classical philology is the philology of the Greek, Latin and Sanskrit languages. Classical philology is historically primary, originating in European Renaissance Humanism, but was soon joined by philologies of other languages. Lorenzo Valla studied the “Donation of Constantine” and proved that it was a forgery. It is a decree by which the emperor Constantine I supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the pope. Valla’s discovery was extremely important. |
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5th C / revision 13th C
The Vulgate is an early 5th-century Latin version of the Bible and largely the result of the labors of Jerome, who was commissioned by the Pope in the 4th century to make a revision of the old Latin translations. By the 13th century this revision had come to be called the "commonly used translation." It ultimately it became the definitive and officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible in the Roman Catholic Church. The Vulgate continued to be regarded as the standard scholarly Bible throughout most of the 17th century. |
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| The Reichstag or Diet was the legislative part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Diet chose emperors (electors). There was a Curia of Princes composed of dukes and archbishops. There was also a Curia of Free Cities that included 65. |
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| Pelagius (an Irish monk) believed that one is saved by one’s merits; aka one could earn salvation. Augustine disagreed with this; he claimed Pelagius’ views were like people were dictating to God. |
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15th-Mid 17 C
The Hussites rebelled after John Huss was executed. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. Jan Zizka (d.1424) led a rebellion in Bohemia after Huss was executed. Bohemia was within the Holy Roman Empire. Bohemians were pretty victorious under Zizka; they came together under their anger towards the king and pope. There were two groups of Hussites: the Ultraquists and the Taborites. During the Hussite Wars (15th century to mid 17th century), apart from their religious aims, the Hussites fought for the national interests of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties were united and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of crusaders, but crossed the borders into neighboring countries. Many Taborites switched over to the more moderate Ultraquists. The Ultraquists won over the Taborites. |
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d 1424
Jan Zizka led a rebellion in Bohemia after John Huss was executed. The Hussites were victorious under Zizka’s leadership. He was a Taborite (more radical). But he did not believe that all heretics should be slain, and often showed clemency to those he defeated |
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1378-1417
Urban VI was elected pope in the late 14th century. He was Italian. He was not diplomatic. He decided to reform the College of Cardinals. He threatened to create new cardinals to dilute power. All non-Italian cardinals declared his election to be null, because it was made under duress. Clement VIII was elected pope in Avignon when Urban VI’s election was declared null. There was an argument over who was the true pope which resulted in the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, or the Great Schism. The Catholics were divided. England was at war with France so they supported Urban VI as pope in Rome. Scotland recognized Clement VIII in France as the true pope. The Holy Roman Emperor supported Urban VI, but his subordinates supported Clement VIII. The situation nurtured the belief in conciliarism. The Great Schism ended in 1417 when Spain stopped supporting Clement VIII. |
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| Frederick III, or Frederick the Wise was the elector of Saxony during Luther’s lifetime. The elector benefitted by receiving a huge amount of relics. He created the University of Wittenburg (1502); Luther was appointed as a professor of theology in 1513 there. |
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| Clement V was pope from 1305 till his death in 1314. Philip IV was able to influence this papal election: Clement V was French. He is memorable for suppressing the order of the Knights Templar, and as the pope who moved the Roman Curia to Avignon. His time as pope was disastrous for Italy. |
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"On the Errors of the Trinity"
"The Restitution of Christianity" |
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When/Where: Early- Mid 16th C Spain
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What: Books written by Michael Servetus
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Sig: Rejected the belief of the Trinity (not based on Bible, arose from teaching of Greek philosophers). Advocated return to simplicity of Gospels, early Church Fathers (pre-date trinitarianism). Thought dismissal of Trinity would make C more appeal to J/I (preseve unity of G-d). |
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- Absence of chimney smoke on Saturdays (a sign the family might secretly be honoring Sabbath)
- The buyin gof many vegetables before Passover
- Purchase of meat from a converted butcher
- Avoidance of pork, shellfish
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Early 16th C
1) Total depravity of man
2) Unconditional election
3) Limited atonement: Jesus didn't die for the sins of all
4) Irresistible grace
5) Preservation of the saints
*TULIP*
Developed at Synod of Dort. Called the Canons of Dort |
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When/Where: Mid 16th C (25 sessions, 3 periods), Trento/HRE
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What: Called by Pope Paul III; commission of Cardinals tasked w/intitutional reform. Began counter reform. Rejected compromise w/Protestants, restated basic tenets of RC: upheld salvation by grace thru faith/works, sacraments & catechism reaffirmed, accepted OT Vulgate. Changes: clergy be better educated, improve discipline & admin of Church & religious institutions, called for standarization of liturgy, ended pluralism & absenteeism.
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Sig: Retain many Catholic traditions. RC becomes very rigid |
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When/Where: Early 16th C, Italy
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Who: Wanted to bring P back to RC. Called for reform before 95 Theses. Wrote, "On the Office of the Bishop," describing an ideal Bishop. Member: Order of Divine Love
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Sig: Church leader pre-dating Luther that believed reformation had to come from within. |
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When/Where: Early 16th C, Verona/Italy
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Who: Bishop of Verona. Like Contarini, called for refrom from w/in. Attacked absenteeism. Member: Order of Divine Love
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Sig: Set the tone for progressive religious reform. Epitomized how a good Bishop should behave. |
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When/Where: 16th C
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What: Co-fraternity established during Leo X's papacy for both laity & clergymen. Focused on Christian purity w/humanism. Both Cantorini & Giberti were associated w/this group
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Sig: Effort to leave scholasticism, embrace humanism. |
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When/Where: Beginning early 16th C
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Who: Order of Franciscans. Emphasized poverty. Recognized by papacy.
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Sig: During Plague, one of the very few groups to administer last rites for sick/dying |
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Jesuits/
Society of Jesus |
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When/Where: Early 16th C, Italy
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What: Founded by Loyola (wounded in battle, experienced religious conversion). Gathered 6 young men to vow poverty, chastity & then obedience to the Pope. Missions to reconvert. Xavier: China/Japan missions.
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When/Where: 1309-1378 Avignon/Holy Roman Empire
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What: Babylonian Captivity. Seven Popes resided in Avignon; French Kings had huge sway, angers rest. 1378: return to Rome, Pope dies, results in election of Urban VI & anti-Pope at Avignon (Clement VII)
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Sig: Increased religious/political tensions. Forced papacy to rely on sale of indulgences to make up for lost taxes |
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When/Where: early 16th C, Paris & other major cities
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What: Incident in which anti-Catholic posters appeared in public places (one posted on Francis' door).
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Sig: Ended conciliatory policies of Francis (had formerly attempted to protect the Protestants) |
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When/Where: Over 5 years in early 15th C. Bohemia
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What: War against & amongst the followers of Hus. Ultraquists (more moderate, won) vs Taborites. Ultraquists are recognized as official sect of RC, get communion in both kinds.
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Sig: First war w/hand-held gunpowder weapons. War inconclusive. Ultraquists only lay to get communion in both kinds. |
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When/Where: Late 14th C to Early 1417, Avignon/Rome
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What: Driven by politics, not theological differences. Two men claimed to be Pope. Ended with the Council of Constance
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Sig: The simultaneous claims to the papal chair of two different men hurt the reputation of the office |
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