Formal Colonies

Time Period: 19^th and 20^th century

Definition: Formal colonies are prevalent in the 19^th and 20^thcentury. These are colonies established by formal imperialism. All formal colonies have similarity in structure, arrangement, and evolution. They were typically distant from the home country. For example, Japan occupied Korea or Taiwan.

Significance: Formal colonies reinforce the idea of institutional power through militarization. Formal colonies were typically backed by powerful military power of their home governments. They typically had a bureaucracy to regulate (i.e. British Raj).

Connection to Transnationalism: Some of the East Asian nations colonized one another. This transnational colonialism affected the political system of the colonized nations. For example, Japan colonized China and Korea. Japanese colonization of China resulted in changes in China’s political system. 

Connection to gender, nationality, and class: Because there is this system of power in place, there is a form of social hierarchy within these colonies. For instance, white settlers were viewed as superior over the natives. There was usually a minority population of colonizing white elites and usually a large population of materially weak colonized natives.

Informal/Free Trade Imperialism

Dates: Late 19th century and beginning 20^th century

Definition: The economic dominance of one nation over another without a formal colonial agreement. The imperial nation often uses their political power and military. The Western Powers used unequal treaties, granting them extraterritoriality and commercial access, including free and exclusive trade rights.

Significance: This “New Imperialism” in East Asia was different than Imperialism in other parts of the world. The Western Powers used East Asian countries to compete with each other. They allowed the existing countries to “rule” themselves but intimidated them into

following and submitting to their power.

Connection to transnationalism: Imperialism, by nature, is a global phenomenon. It deals with countries from one region of the world dominating countries of another area of the world. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the world’s super powers infringed upon the policies and cultures of the less developed nations (Korea, Taiwan, Manchuria, India, etc). 

Connection to gender, nationality, and class: Social Darwinism (Herbert Spencer)—survival of the fittest on a national level—allowed the Western Powers to proclaim their nationalities as superior to those in East Asia because of their political and economic dominance. They considered themselves racially superior to people indigenous to the informally colonized region and treated them with disrespect and inferiority.

Gunboat Diplomacy

Date: Late 19th Century

Japan, and other Imperialist countries, demonstrated military power over countries in order to establish informal/free trade imperialism.

The connection through Transnationalism is that countries who fall victim begin to trade through the ports and share their foreign culture and ideals with those of the natives.

Also, the gunboat diplomacy of Western Powers, such as America and Britain, were international relations "examples" to Japan.

Unequal Treaty

The type of treaties signed by East Asian nations with Westerners and Japan during the 19^th and early 20^th centuries. These treaties forced the defeated nation to pay war indemnities, open upports, cede territories, Most Favored Nation clause, and extraterritoriality. 

Ex: Treaty of Nanjing (1842) signed by China and Great Britain.  The imposition of these treaties on Japan soon led Japan not only to conclude that it was necessary to modernize, but also to mimic the Western notion that imperialism was necessary to civilize the savages. 

Commodore Perry

Birth date/death date: 1794-1858

Date of influence: 1854

Definition: Commodore of the US navy who pushed gunboat diplomacy on Japan to force them to open their ports for US trade

Significance: he was able to get Japan to sign the Convention of Kanagawa (1854)

Connection to transnationalism: Japan would later look up to the US as a successful nation that it would try to mimic during its attempts at modernization.

The Convention of Kawagawa

Definition:Also called Perry Convention (March 31, 1854), Japan's first treaty with a Western nation. In marked the end of
Japan's period of seclusion (1639-1854). The treaty was signed as a result of pressure from U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry, who sailed into Tokyo Bay with a fleet of warships in July 1853 and demanded that the Japanese open their  ports to U.S. ships for supplies. 
Significance: Unlike the Chinese, the Japanese opened its border to the US and accepted the Treaty of Kanagawa. This end of seclusion and opening its borders with Western countries allowed the Japan's military to become very strong, which allowed Japan to win war with Russia and conquer East Asia countries like Korea.

Connection to transnationalism: Japan was westernized. They had  to colonize other countries to maintain their raw materials to create new railroads and stronger military.

Townsend Harris

Birth date/death date: 1804-78

Definition: First U.S. Consul General to Japan

Significance: Negotiated the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1858) 

-Opening of 4 more ports

-brought extraterritoriality

-Japan losses tariff autonomy, low tariffs on American goods

-Most Favored Nation treatment for U.S.

 Japan accepting this treaty allowed them to keep their land, have no war indemnities, no opium, and no interior travel; unlike China, allowing them to establish dominance among East Asian countries.

Birth date/death date: 1804-78

The Treaty of Amity and Commerce

Date: Signed in 1858

Definition:   The Treaty of Amity and Commerce was a treaty between the United States in Japan that was signed in 1858. It is also sometimes referred to as The Harris Treaty because U.S. envoy Townsend Harris was the man who negotiated the terms.

The treaty consisted of:

.        The opening of 4 more ports

.        Extraterritoriality

.        Loss of tariff autonomy with low duties

.        Most favored nation treatment

Significance: This treaty paved the way for more "unequal treaties" involving the United States and Japan. Gunboat Diplomacy was used as a means to get the Japanese to accept this treaty. 

Transnationalism: Japan witnessed a similar situation in China between the British and the Chinese. Japan had a different response to Gunboat Diplomacy, they gave into their demands. Both China and Japan signed unequal treaties, but the Treaty of Amity and Commerce was not as unequal as the Treaty of Nanjing. No land cession, no war indemnity, and no interior travel.

The Kapsin Coup

Dates: 1884

Definition: The “Enlightenment” Advocates in Korea wanted to borrow Japanese tactics of modernization to promote independence from China. The advocates wanted Western power to adopt a modern military. So they attempted to overthrow the government. The Coup eventually failed and activists were exiled.

Significance: Many Japanese were killed and their buildings were destroyed during the revolt. The Japanese demanded an apology and a treaty that restored diplomatic relations.

• 1896-98 (Short lived)
• Created by Korean Leaders as new political system because of Kabo reforms.
• Established independence gate to replace Chinese gate
• Wanted more rights for citizens
• Pushed the throne to form a legislature of elected officials

Definition:  enacted in pre-war Japan meant to suppress uprisings and riots; targeted socialism, communism, and anarchism. 

o       outlawed groups that did any of 2 things:

§       spoke out against the emperor

§       spoke about abolishing privately ownership.  

-         targeted the land tenants who were more likely to turn towards communism or socialism.

-         Significance: after riots that were politically based

o       They had two choices to do:

§       either suppress the people and violence or institute reform.  

§       They reformed through enacting the Universal Manhood Suffrage Act which allowed greater representation and gave a larger voice to the people. 

-         Connection to gender, nationality, and class

o       used to maintain the class structure

o        The laws prevented meetings or talks that spoke against the emperor

o       The law also prevented talk about reform to the private land ownership policy, this was meant to ensure that the rich landlords maintained their ownership and class status. 

• 1889
• Was created due to pressure by the popular rights movement
• Gave few rights to Japanese citizens and kept most rights for the emperor
• First Constitution drafted in Asia

The Kabo Reforms

Date: 1894-96

Definition: A sweeping change in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution by King Gojong. This reform was widely influenced by the Japan and the pro-Japanese Koreans. Reform includes the following changes: Korea is a sovereign country, adopted new calendar,  those with talent are allowed to study. Only the King is to be in control of the government. The Kabo Reform was the end of the civil service exam and started of universal education. 
Significance: This is a good example of transnationalism because Korea is modeling after Japan. There is the transnational trend of every nation wanting to become more modern so that they are not seen backwards.  

 Transnationalism: Korea was pressured by both China and Japan on embracing the traditional culture and the western culture respectively. After korean independence from China, Korea established a cabinet-based constitutional monarchy.  The Kabo reform forced Korea to take a step towards the western culture with the influence of Japan.

• 1895
• China recognized independence of Korea and re announced any claims to Korea
• Ceded Liaodong peninsula, islands of Taiwan and penghu to Japan.
• China paid 200 million Kuping taels
• Opened various ports and rivers to Japanese trade
• Was an unequal treaty

• Summer 1898
• Failed national, cultural, educational reform movement in Qing China to modernize the country
• Reforms came about because of China's defeat in first Sino-Japan War. 
• Many saw reforms as too radical
• Empress Dowager Cixi did a coup detat on emerpero Guangxu with the help of Yuan Shikai

• 1910 -1920's
• Response to failures of Chinese Republic in 1912
• Leaders were Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao
• Urged for new Chinese culture based on Western ideas with emphasis on democracy and science. 
• Movement started with the May 4th movement
• Push for equal rights for all classes

• 1886-1971
• Japanese feminist writer
• in 1911, she found first all-women literary magaize "Blue Stockings"
• Found New Woman Association in 1919. Association was feminist

• 1918
• No secrecy between nations, open seas and trade equality were some points
• promotes self-determinism and humanism globally
• Influenced people around the world that USA supported them to be their own nation

• 1919
• display of Korean independence inspired by 14 points
• Caused by resentment of Japanese military Rule
• 7000 koreans killed by Japanese
• This caused military force instead of civilian force
• Limited press freedom was permitted and women were able to express their view

(1919-48)

-Created in shanghai

• 1919-36
• Japanese Strategy to force Koreans to cooperate with military oppression and persuasive tactics like allowing Koreans access to newspapers for politics and less oppressive police force
• Allowed more voice for in government for people
• Strategy in response to March 1st movement
• Meant to divide surging nationalistic movement

• 1919
• Anti imperialist movement in response to Chinese weakness during Treaty of Versailles
• Sparked Chinese Nationalism
• Allowed China to progress towards modernization
• Many countries seemed to be doing modernization during this time period

• 1879 - 1942
• Chinese activist who advocated anti-imperialism and was against Qing Dynasty.
• Co-founded Chinese Communist Party in 1921
• Important leading figure in May 4th movement

• 1927-31
• a “temporary reunion.”  expanded throughout Korea that promoted socialism. It dissolved over time because the radical faction became dominant over the local faction.
• Had sister organization who also promoted socialism
• Attempt to modernize Korea with socialism

• 1874-84
• Political and social movement pursued formation of elected legislatures, revision of unequal treaties institution of civil rights and reduction of centralized taxes

• 1895-1910
• Korean military is disbanded and Japan destroys Korean railroads and telegraph Systems
• Violent rejection of Japanese Colonialism and military presence. 
• 3000 clashes took place between Righteous Army movement and Japan's military
• Member were exiled to Manchuria

• 1898-1901
• People named Boxers due to their martial art practices
• Anti-foreign movement
• urged to kill all foreigners and Chinese contaminated by their influence
• Blamed the drought on anger of gods at the foreign intrusion
• 8 Foreign powers sent troops to protect missionaries inc Japan (20,000 troops)
• Negotiations led to Boxer protocol and china accepted penalties which included 450 million dollars

• 1905-10
• Immediately following the Eulsa Treaty which made Korea a protectorate of Japan
• non violent movement
• Led by Ahn Jun-geun who assassinated Hirobumi in 1909, he also raised an army of loyal troops to resist Japanese colonial rule
• Wanted strong economic base for country and growth of mass media

• 1910-1920
• First Period of Japanese rule in Korea
• Japanese police force grew exponentially
• Precursor to March 1st movement
• Korean citizens were forced to accept Japanese Law 
• Hierarchical system was generated

• 1910-1930
• Feminist movement in which women lived unconventional lifestyles such as refusing to marry
• Tried to change the image of women from "Good wife Wise Mother"

• 1911
• Chinese Revolution led by Sun Yat-Sen to overthrow Qing government, rebuild Han dynasty and construct a republic.
• Started because of inability to stop interventions of foreign powers and dominated by ethnic minority: the Manchus.
• After Revolution, Republic of China officially began
• Yuan Shikai became provisional president
• Americans supported the Chinese

Yüan Shih-kai

• 1920
• Radicalist Student
• Tried to start Korean Socialist Part in 1918 but starter Communist party in 1921
• guerrilla commander
• became prime minister of communist party
• Favored military action against Japan

• 1920s
• Korea goes through Cultural Movement 
• More publication of news magazines and books
• Education was also increased
• 1922 Ordinance -- Banned polygamy and concubinage, allowed women to divorce
• Korean literature flourished
• Korea started to form its own identity

• Early 1900s
• Korean author wrote "The Heartless
• He believed that korea lacked national awareness

(1878-1933)

-         a Japanese scholar who promoted the ideals of democracy in Japan.

-         spearheaded the democracy movement

o       tried to find a way to make it work with the current system  of monarchy.

o       The Japanese term for democracy was minpon shugi

§       "politics of the people"

o       struggled to  modernize their government through observation of the western  techniques. His transnational philosophies led him to be a forward thinker with his political theories.

The Treaty of Kanghwa (Ganghwa)

or

Korea-Japanese Treaty of Amity

Date: signed February 27, 1876

Definition: The first “unequal” treaty signed by Korea with a

foreign nation. This treaty opened up Korea to Japanese trade,

and granted Japanese many rights in Korea that Westerners

enjoyed in Japan. (Ex. Extraterritoriality) Korea was forced to

sign this treaty under Japan’s gunboat diplomacy.

Significance: Even though the treaty describes Korea as an independent state, equal in status to Japan, the terms of treaty weren't equal. This treaty ended the Korea’s policy of isolation and forced Korea opened up to foreign relations with other nations. The Treaty of Kanghwa symbolized Korea’s first step toward submission to Japan Imperialism. Japan used this treaty as a tactic to conquer China in the future as this treaty ended Korea’s status as China’s tributary state

Connection to transnationalism: After the treaty was signed, Korea also signed similar treaties with United States, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, and France. Japanese were allowed to migrate to Korea and Japanese’ cultures were introduced to Korean. Furthermore, Western technologies imported helped Korea undergo an industrial revolution.

Connection to gender/class/nationality: The Treaty of Kanghwa granted Japanese many rights that were not granted to Korean on an equal basis. Koreans, as an ethnic identity, had lower nationality status than Japanese.

(1925)

-         a form of voting rights that allowed for all males (over the age of 25 and who had lived for more than one year in the electoral districts) within Japan the right to vote.

-         better representation of the poorer and lower class male citizens.

-         Although this act diminished some previous voting limitations (ie. social standing and measurement of wealth, etc…),

-         poorest of the poor still couldn’t vote (like the homeless) and, obviously, women couldn’t vote either.

-         The 21 Demands (1915) and Anti-japanese nationalism

-         Last group of demands would have turned China into a puppet for Japan

o       Japanese control over Chinese gov’t officials

-         Results: anti-japanese nationalism

o       Boycotts

Dates: 1859-1933

-         Wanted the gov’t to support the working classes

-         Studied in America, became a Christian and a Socialist

-         Opposed Japanese imperialism

-         Intellectuals, journalists, writers, etc.

-         Wanted the gov’t to support the working class

-         Always under the eye of the very watchful and conservative gov’t

-         He was a member of the American Communist Party and co-founder of the Japanese Communist Party which was founded in 1922

-         Great Treason Incident

o       12 anarchists etc were convicted of assassinating the emperor

Dates: 1869

Definition: Japan’s political movement from a decentralized domain to a centralized nation state.  The emperor was reinstated, centralized the nation, the country had been divided by class and geography previously,

• 1866-1925
• Study in America (hawaii)
• in 1920's was leader of Nationalist party of China
• Promoted womens rights and education
• First provisional president for Republic of China
• Proposed Three Peoples principles with Nationalism, Democracy, and The "People Livelihood"
• Used Japan as model for political change and then Russia as the model 

• 1873-1929
• New Reformer who was educated by Confucian classics
• He argued that Wester learning was needed to reform and criticized hierarchies
• Believed in Social Darwinism

• 1868-1912
• Government-sponsored ideology in Meiji Japan that the family is the pillar of state
• Also occurred in China
• Only upper class women were housewives because lower class women could not afford to be housewives
• Women did not receive anything for being a good housewife
• Eldest Son still got all the inheritance

“Hermit Kingdom”

• 1429 - 1879
• Originally autonomous kingdom
• Okinawans were treated as if they were Korean or Taiwanese

• 1888-1927
• Radical Chinese intellectual who too Marxism views and co-founded Communist Party of China
• Only wanted a working class
• He was executred because of raid on Soviet embassy in Peking

• 1896-1971
• Wrote "New Women" Magazine
• Magazine encourages that women should not only be house wifes and reforming womens role will reform society
• Push for feminism was a world wide phenomenon

• 1899-1970
• Most significant Christian "new women"
• Got a degree from Boston Univ and PHD from Columbia
• She found Korean YWCA

• 1905
• major city-wide riot in Tokyo in protest of humiliating terms of Treaty of Portsmouth which ended Russo-Japan war
• War indemnity was not gained with Russia and Japanese territory were given to Russia
• Treaty confirmed Japans emergence as preeminent power
• Start of period called era of Popular violence

• 1920's -1930's
• Women who broke away from traditional ways of living and dressing
• MG women were promiscuous and superficial
• Showed that asia was becoming more modern
• MG looked to Hollywood actresses as role models

• State of Mother Country but treated as colony
• In 1879 Japan forces king to give up
• Highest per capita tax and lowest per capita income
• Did not get political representation until 1912
• Given to USA after WWII
• Ryukyuans were considered a lower class

Treaty of Nanjing

Date: August 29^th 1842

Definition: (a) Britain forces the treaty onto the Chinese after China loses the First Opium War (1839-1842).

Terms of the treaty: 5 treaty ports opened to consuls, trade, and residence, war indemnity loser has to pay for the war, loss of tariff autonomy of the Chinese to levy taxes on imports, the British now controls the rate of which the amount of stuff being imported into China, cession of Hong Kong as commercial hub: extraterritoriality: stipulation in law,  British criminals tried under British laws, Chinese laws as barbaric. Most- Favored-Nation (MFN) treatment, Britain getting lowest amount of tariffs when China imports its goods, opium not outlawed and legalized in 1860, right to anchor warships at ports and navigate inland waterways

Significance: China becomes influenced by Western powers opening of its trading ports, especially trading its tea to Britain in exchange for opium. China is no longer seen as a strong force in Eastern Asia anymore.

The Soldiers’ Mutiny

Dates: June 1882

Definition:

     In 1882 the Korean peninsula experienced a severe drought which led to food shortages. Korea was on the verge of bankruptcy; the government was not able to pay its debts, particularly to its military. The soldiers of the Korean army had not been paid for months. On July 23, a military mutiny and riot broke out in Seoul; troops, assisted by the population, sacked the rice granaries there. In response the Japanese sent four warships and a battalion of troops to Seoul. The Chinese also deployed 4,500 troops to counter the Japanese. The Japanese government would also receive 500,000 yen, a formal apology, and permission to construct barracks and station troops in Seoul.

Significance: The mutiny led to an increased Japanese presence in Korea, and tightened their hold over the Country. Japanese and Chinese in their battle for control over Korea, which would eventually lead to the Sino-Japanese War.

Connection to transnationalism: The aftermath of the mutiny led to increased control over Korean and its descent into a colony controlled by Japan; it also led to the Sino-Japanese War, which would result in Japan’s increased presence and renown in the international Community, while dethroning China as the central dominant power in East Asia.

Connection to gender, nationality, and class: Mutiny was a result of class conflict-dissatisfaction with the rich and powerful elite of Korea, soldiers and parts of the population rebelled to show their resentment to the government and those in power. Would also lead to the establishment of Japanese superiority in East Asia.

The “Eastern Learning” Rebellion

Dates: Throughout the year of 1984 (starting in February)
Definition: Tonghak (“Eastern Learning”) was a religion started by Ch’oe Che-u that stressed “the equality of all human beings.” Anti-government(anti-yangban) and anti-Westernization rebellion by Tonghak followers and peasants calling for social reform in Korea. 

Significance: Catalyst for the Sino-Japanese War; Korean government asked China for help so China sent troops to Korea without notifying Japan, who saw this as a threat and Japan ended up sending its own troops to Korea.
Connection to transnationalism: Heightened tension between China and Japan
Connection to gender, nationality, and class: No connection with gender or nationality; the reason for the rebellion was to protest corrupt ruling of the peasant class by the “yangban,” or ruling aristocrat class. 

 Chinese Tribute System

The Chinese Tribute System was a foreign policy practice that maintained Korea's ties to China by giving tribute(gifts) to China. This relationship between China and Korea was one that maintained Korea's autonomy. Under this, Korea was a self-governing nation that maintained its own institutions. This was possible because the Qing Dynasty never interfered in its domestic or international affairs.

 As a result of Japan's imperialist attitude towards Korea, Japan's need for control of Korea resulted in the end of the Chinese tributary system between China and Korea  with the signing of Treaty of

Shimonoseki in 1895.

This end to the tributary system undermined Korea's sovereignty and rendered them politically weak for years to come.

“Subdue Korea Debate”