Which type of cellular connection is characterized by openings in adjacent animal cells for intercellular exchange to take place?

A. Desmosomes

B. Tight Junctions

C. Gap Junctions

D. Plasmodesmata

E. Molecular Anchoring

Gap Junctions

Desmosomes and tight junctions are ways to connect cells, but they both do not allow for movement of intercellular fluid between adjacent cells. Plasmodesmata are a type of gap junction connection, but this is present in only plant cells. This question clearly refers to the cells as being “adjacent animal cells”. Molecular anchoring is not a real term in Anatomy & Physiology, therefore leaving the correct answer as [C].

In order for the actin filaments to bind to the myosin head, what must occur first?

A. The sarcomere has to shorten

B. Calcium ions must bind to troponin molecules

C. Tropomycin has to attach to the actin binding sites

D. Magnesium must be released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum

E. The Z line has to be lengthened to expose the actin binding site

Calcium ions must bind to troponin molecules

The tropomyosin has to be removed from the actin to expose the myosin binding sites. To do this, troponin must first be removed from the tropomyosin to allow for the myosin binding sites to be exposed on the actin filaments. Calcium ions are able to accomplish this, therefore the correct answer is [B]. The sarcomere shortens as a result of muscle contraction after the myosin has attached to the actin filament. The Z line does not affect the actin binding site. Likewise, magnesium ions do not have to do with muscle contraction.

Fats are broken down in the small intestine using which enzyme(s)?

A. Lipase

B. Pepsin

C. Pepsinogen

D. Bile

E. Both A and D

Both A and D (Lipase and Bile)

Fats also known as lipids are broken down using lipase produced by the pancreas and bile produced by the liver but transferred to the small intestine through the bile duct. Pepsin and pepsinogen are responsible for breaking down proteins, not lipids. Therefore, the correct answer is [E].

What would result following an injury to the phrenic nerve?

A. An inability to stand

B. An irregular heart rate

C. An inability to control breathing

D. An increase in body temperature

E. An increase in facial spasms

An inability to control breathing

The phrenic nerve controls breathing and the movement of the diaphragm. If damage is done to this area the diaphragm will not receive the necessary signals to contract and/or relax, making it extremely difficult or impossible for a person to breathe on their own. The only answer option that coincides with this is [C].

The opening in the skull that is superior to the atlas is known as the ________________?

A. Axis

B.Mandible

C. Occipital Fissure

D. Foramen Magnum

E. Corpus Callosum

Foramen Magnum

The opening in anatomical terms is referred to as a foramen or "hole". The large opening in the base of the skull is the foramen magnum. A fissure is a long, narrow crevice in the skull, not an opening like the question asks. The axis is the second vertebrae of the spine, the mandible or jawbone, and the corpus callosum are all incorrect responses to this question. Therefore, the correct answer is [D].

During exhalation, the diaphragm does which of the following?

A. Relaxes and lifts

B. Relaxes and lowers

C. Contracts and lifts

D. Contracts and lowers

E. Does not move

Relaxes and lifts

During exhalation, the air pressure in the lungs must increase greater than atmospheric pressure, to force the air out. To do this, the diaphragm must relax and lift. Inhalation involves the diaphragm contracting and lowering to allow for more volume in the lungs for air to enter. The only answer option that corresponds with the relaxing and lifting movement of the diaphragm during exhalation is answer option [A].

Which two bones make up the structure of the lower leg?

A. Radius & Ulna

B. Femur & Patella

C. Metatarsal & Tarsal

D. Sternum & Clavicle

E. Fibula & Tibia

Fibula & Tibia

The radius and the ulna make up the forearm and wrist. The metatarsals and tarsals are the bones in the foot. The femur and the patella make up the thigh and the kneecap. The sternum and clavicle are in the chest, therefore the only bone structures located in the lower leg are the tibia and fibula. Therefore, the correct answer is [E].

What area(s) of the brain are the most affected if a person is unable to understand written or verbal speech?

A. Weirnecke's area

B. Broca's area

C. Occipital lobe

D. Parietal lobe

E. A and B

Weirnecke's area

The person cannot understand speech, which does not mean that they are unable to produce speech. Speech production is concentrated in Broca's area and since the question referred to the person's inability to understand speech and not their inability to produce speech, [B] and [E] are not the correct answer. The occipital lobe is responsible for vision, and the parietal is responsible for response to touch and body movements. Only Wernicke's area is the site for language comprehension, therefore the correct answer is [A].

What area of the eye has the most acute vision and is comprised only of cones?

A. Iris

B. Pupil

C. Retina

D. Macula

E. Fovea centralis

Fovea centralis

All of the answer options are parts of the eye, the iris contributes to the color of the eye. The pupil regulates the amount of light entering the eye. The retina is the light sensitive layer of tissue that helps project images onto the back of the eye. Though the macula is the region that contains the area with only cones, the specific structure is called the fovea centralis. Therefore, the correct answer is [E].

This enzyme begins the process of carbohydrate digestion in the mouth.

A. Lipase

B. Protease

C. Amylase

D. Nuclease

E. B and C

Amylase

In the mouth, the saliva begins to break down carbohydrates using salivary amylase. Lipase is important for the digestion of fats and this occurs in the duodenum of the small intestine. Proteases break down proteins and this process begins in the stomach. Nucleases breakdown nucleic acids, but this does not begin in the mouth. Therefore, the correct answer is [C].

What is the primary function of melatonin?

A. To produce pigment for the skin

B. To regulate the fight or flight response

C. To regulate sleep/wake cycles

D. To stimulate protein synthesis

E. Initiates sperm and egg maturation

To regulate sleep/wake cycles

 Melatonin is the key hormone in regulating sleep and wake cycles, or the body's circadian rhythms. Pigment is regulated by melanin and protein synthesis stimulation is the function of the human growth hormone. The fight or flight response is stimulated by the release of catecholamine hormones, like adrenaline. The gonadotropins are responsible for sperm and egg maturation. Therefore, the correct answer is [C].

The right side of the heart is associated with which type of circulation?

A. Pulmonary circulation

B. Aortic circulation

C. Ventricular circulation

D. Systemic circulation

E. Myocardial circulation

Pulmonary circulation

The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower parts of the body. The main purpose of the right side of the heart is to collect blood and send it to the lungs to absorb oxygen. This process is referring to pulmonary circulation. Systemic circulation encompasses sending oxygenated blood, from the left side of the heart, to the upper and lower portions of the body. Aortic, ventricular, and myocardial circulation are not actual parts of the circulatory system. Therefore, the correct answer is [A].

The limbic system of the brain is responsible for the regulation of ___________?

A. Vision

B. Emotion

C. Motor movement

D. Speech production

E. Metabolic processes

Emotion

 The limbic system is comprised of several brain structures that are responsible for regulating emotion, behavior and motivation. Motor movement is a function of the motor cortex and speech production is housed in Broca's area. Metabolic processes is a very broad term that is not directly related to the limbic system. Therefore, the correct answer is [B].

Which of the following would be a direct result of lipid depletion in the human body?

A. The increase in the amount of proteins secreted in the body

B. The decrease in the amount of estrogen produced

C. The decrease in the permeability of the cellular membrane

D. The transfer of nuclear membrane lipids to the cytoplasm

E. The exchange of cytoplasmic lipids with membrane bound proteins

The decrease in the amount of estrogen produced

 Lipid production does not directly affect the amount of and/or rate of protein synthesis. The permeability of the cellular membrane may increase, not decrease, with a depletion of lipids as fewer lipids are made to replace damaged phospholipids. The last two answer options are inaccurate, as lipids would not be sent to the cell’s cytoplasm nor exchanged for proteins. Lipids, however, are the precursors to many hormones in the body and with a depletion of lipids, this would result in a decrease in hormones like estrogen, therefore [B] is the correct answer.

What section of the human spine contains 5 vertebrae?

A. Lumbar

B. Cervical

C. Thoracic

D. Sacrum

E. Coccyx

Lumbar

Starting at the top of the spine, the cervical vertebrae are numbered C1-C7. Next, the thoracic vertebrae that make up the bulk of the back, is numbered T1-T12. The lumbar vertebrae, the lower region in the back, is numbered L1-L5. The sacrum and the coccyx are not individual vertebrae but instead are fused bony structures. The only answer option that matches with the 5 vertebrae characteristic mentioned in the question is [A].

The engulfing of large particles into the cell is referred to as ____________?

A. Phagocytosis

B. Pinocytosis

C. Exocytosis

D. Cellular Respiration

E. Active Transport

Phagocytosis

Exocytosis involves components leaving the cell, not coming into the cell. Pinocytosis is characterized by the engulfing of large amounts of fluid, not solid particles. Cellular respiration and Active Transport refer to other cellular processes unrelated to the question of engulfing large particles. Therefore, the correct answer is [A].

What valve is responsible for preventing the backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium?

A. Mitral valve

B. Tricuspid valve

C. Semilunar valve

D. Aortic valve

E. Pulmonary valve

Tricuspid valve

The pulmonary valve and the semilunar valve are the same structure which prevent blood backflow between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. The mitral valve is located between the left ventricle and left atrium. The aortic valve is the structure between the left ventricle and the aorta. The only valve located on the right side between the right atrium and right ventricle is the tricuspid valve, or answer option [B].

Which muscle is responsible for the adduction of the shoulder?

A. Biceps brachii

B. Triceps brachii

C. Latissimus dorsi

D. Brachialis

E. Trapezius

Latissimus dorsi

Although all of the answer options are for muscles in the arm and shoulder region. The latissimus dorsi is the muscle responsible for the adduction of the shoulder. The biceps brachii is responsible for elbow flexion, whereas the triceps helps with elbow extension. The trapezius is an upper back muscle that helps with supporting and moving the shoulder blade. Therefore, the correct answer is [C].

The release of prolactin during breastfeeding is an example of __________________?

A. Negative feedback

B. Positive feedback

C. Gene regulation

D. Protein synthesis

E. Cell permeability

Positive feedback

The stimulating of the mammary glands in the breast by prolactin is an example of positive feedback. The more a woman breastfeeds the more prolactin is released and the more milk that is produced. Negative feedback would imply a "shutting off" of a process when the stimulus is removed/satisfied. Gene regulation, protein synthesis and cell permeability are not appropriate answer options for what the question is asking. Therefore, the correct answer is [B].

What is the main function of calcitonin?

A. Increasing the absorption rate of calcium in the heart

B. Decreasing the calcium concentration in the blood

C. Preventing the increase in calcium in the bone marrow

D. Inhibiting the process of calcium in the muscle cells

E. None of the above

Decreasing the calcium concentration in the blood

Calcitonin is a naturally produced hormone that is responsible for regulating the blood calcium levels. When levels get too high, calcium is excreted in the urine. Calcium is not absorbed in the heart, and calcium is not generally absorbed in the bone marrow. The only answer choice that correctly identifies the role of calcitonin is [B].

Which is a bodily reaction to the fight or flight response?

A. Pupil dilation

B. Vasoconstriction

C. Increase perspiration

D. Decrease gastric motility

E. All of the above

All of the above

The fight or flight response as part of the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for preparing the body against an adverse stimulus. All of the answer options pertain to a physical symptom related to the initiation of the fight or flight response. Therefore, the correct answer is [E].

What type of joint is present in the elbow?

A. Hinge joint

B. Saddle joint

C. Gliding joint

D. Pivot joint

E. Ball and socket joint

Hinge joint

 The elbow is able to only move in one plane. The only joint listed above that coincides with this one plane movement is the hinge joint. Gliding and ball and socket joints allow for more movement including some type of circular motion, not characterized by the elbow. Pivot joints involve one bone moving around the other, which again is not true for the elbow. Therefore the correct answer is [A].

The autoimmune disease, multiple sclerosis is characterized by the degradation of what?

A. Proteins

B. Carbohydrates

C. Myelin Sheath

D. Dendrites

E. Phospholipids

Myelin Sheath

Multiple sclerosis targets the myelin sheath along the axon. The myelin sheath is degraded leading to slower neuron impulses as the action potential is unable to jump between the Nodes of Ranvier. Proteins, carbohydrates, and phospholipids are not directly affected by multiple sclerosis. Dendrites, the structures on the ends of the axons that receive incoming neural messages are also not directly targeted by multiple sclerosis. Therefore, the correct answer is [C].

What vein returns blood to the heart, draining the head, neck, and upper torso?

A. Superior vena cava

B. Inferior vena cava

C. Ascending aorta

D. Descending aorta

E. Pulmonary vein

Superior vena cava

The question asks for a vein, ruling out the ascending aorta and the descending aorta, as these are both arteries. The pulmonary vein does return blood back to the heart, but not from the upper extremities. The inferior vena cava drains the lower extremities, returning deoxygenated blood to the heart. The superior vena cava, in fact, drains the upper extremities sending blood to the heart. Therefore, the correct answer is [A].

A rupture in the cardiac sphincter would result in what occurring?

A. Sugars not being digested

B. The small intestine losing surface area

C. The backflow of gastric juices into the esophagus

D. Protiens and lipids being expelled from the body

E. The release of fecal matter and other bodily fluids

The backflow of gastric juices into the esophagus

The cardiac sphincter is a group of contractile muscles between the esophagus and the stomach. If the sphincter does not close properly or is ruptured, this will lead to heartburn or the backflow of gastric juices into the esophagus, burning its delicate lining. Since the cardiac sphincter is located near the stomach and does not regulate digestion of sugars, proteins, or lipids, the other answer options are not appropriate. Therefore, the correct answer is [C].

Electrical impulses called “action potentials” move along the axon of a neuron by _______________?

A. Elongation

B. Chemical messaging

C. Electrochemical gradients

D. Saltatory conduction

E. Repolarization

Saltatory conduction

The axon is covered in myelin sheath leaving small bare intermittently spaced regions referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier. The action potential, which is an electrical signal, spreads down the axon toward the axon terminal by jumping from one node to the next. This movement is called salutatory conduction. Elongation, repolarization, and chemical messaging are not appropriate answers for this question. Therefore, the correct answer is [D].

Which sequence outlines the correct flow of blood through the heart?

I.   Blood exits through the aorta

II.  Blood exits through the pulmonary artery to go to the lungs

III. Blood enters the left atrium

IV.  Blood passes through the mitral valve

V.   Blood enters the right atrium

A. II, III, V, IV, I

B. I, II, III, IV, V

C. III, IV, V, I, II

D. V, II, III, IV, I

E. V, III, II, I, IV

V, II, III, IV, I

Blood enters the heart on the right side, collecting in the right atrium. After moving through the right ventricle, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary artery to travel to the lungs to release carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen. The blood returns to the left side of the heart, through the pulmonary vein, going to the left atrium, then through the mitral valve to the left ventricle. Lastly, the blood leaves the heart through the aorta. The only answer option that puts this in the correct order is [D].

What lobe of the brain is responsible for processing olfactory information?

A. Frontal

B. Parietal

C. Occipital

D. Temporal

E. Corpus Callosum

Temporal

The corpus callosum is not a brain lobe and instead connects the two brain hemispheres. Olfactory, or the sense of smell is controlled by the temporal lobe, not the frontal lobe, which controls cognition and motor movement, nor the occipital lobe, which controls vision. The parietal lobe is responsible for controlling body/spatial placement and responses to touch. Therefore, the correct answer is [D].

Respiration rates are regulated by which of the following?

A. Increasing levels of oxygen

B. Increasing levels of nitrogen

C. Increasing levels of carbon dioxide

D. Decreasing levels of oxygen

E. Decreasing levels of carbon dioxide

Increasing levels of carbon dioxide

The level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the stimulus to regulate breathing. If carbon dioxide levels become too high, the blood will become acidic. Though during respiration the lungs take in oxygen, the body is more sensitive to wanting to release carbon dioxide to maintain neutral pH levels. Nitrogen levels in the blood do not regulate breathing or respiration rates. Therefore, the correct answer is [C].

Which of the following would be a categorized as a flat bone?

A. Vertebrae

B. Metatarsals

C. Femur

D. Scapula

E. Mandible

Scapula

A flat bone is defined as a bone that provides muscular attachment and also serves to protect the body's vital organs or sensitive areas. The vertebrae and mandible are both irregular bones. The femur is a long bone. Therefore, the correct answer is [D], the scapula, which in fact is an example of a flat bone.