Term
|
Definition
| When the neurotransmitters synapse (slot into appropriate postsynaptic receptors), the chemical signal is then converted back to an electrical signal. If enough synapses collectively create enough voltage (action potential) in the next nerve cell, the electrical charge can travel to the next synapse, where it’s again converted into a chemical signal for the next synapse. |
|
|
Term
| How does an action potential happen? |
|
Definition
| The charge across a membrane is a potential. One can talk about the potential across the membrane of a cell at any time by calling it the membrane potential. One can talk about a specific dynamic change in the charge across the membrane of a cell, one that occurs either totally or not at all, as an action potential. You will also see that cells that receive synaptic information turn that into a postsynaptic potential toward the end of this unit. Let's explore the action potential here. |
|
|
Term
| Name the four parts of a nerve cell. |
|
Definition
1. Cell body (soma). The cell body produces all proteins the rest of the cell. The cell body contains the specialized organelles such as: the mitochondria Golgi apparatus endoplasmic reticulum secretory granules ribosomes and polysomes.
2. The neuronal membrane Which serves as a barrier to enclose the cytoplasm inside the neuron.
3. The dendrites Which are like branches that stretch out to receive information from other cells.
4. The axons Which send electrical signals. |
|
|
Term
| How does myelin help the nerve cell? |
|
Definition
| It serves the same function as insulation covering wire. It ensures the electric impulse is carried along quickly and efficiently. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the parts of a synapse? |
|
Definition
1. An electrical impulse travels down the axon of the pre-synaptic neuron
2. The electrical impulse changes the membrane of the vesicles and causes them to move to the end of the terminal button
3. The vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synapse
4. The neurotransmitters migrate across the synapse and bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron
5. When enough neurotransmitter is bound to the receptors, it stimulates the post-synaptic neuron to fire and an electrical impulse travels down the dendrite toward the nerve cell body |
|
|
Term
What is a neurotransmitter?
1.
2. |
|
Definition
1.Chemical that transmits information across the junction ( synapse) that separates one nerve cell (neuron) from another nerve cell or a muscle.
2.Neurotransmitters transmit information within the brain and from the brain to all the parts of the body. |
|
|
Term
| How does a chemical synapse get information from one cell to the next? |
|
Definition
| One neuron releases neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft, that is adjacent to another neuron. These molecules then bind to the neuroreceptors on the receiving cell's side of the synaptic cleft. Finally, the neurotransmitters must be cleared out of the synapse efficiently so that the synapse can be ready to function again as soon as possible. |
|
|
Term
| Are there different kinds of neurotransmitters? Explain. |
|
Definition
| Scientists have managed to identify over 100 neurotransmitters in the human brain alone, but evidence suggests we have significantly more than this number. Some of the identified neurotransmitter are: dopamine, GABA, serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine. Each of these performs some specific functions in the body. For instance serotonin is indicated in mood stability, emotional response, and temperature control. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that allows for the person to willfully or voluntarily use his or her muscles. While researchers can suggest the possible effects of certain neurotransmitters, they not only haven’t identified them all, but also are nowhere near determining all effects of the messenger cells that have been identified. |
|
|
Term
| Are there different kinds of neurotransmitter receptors? Explain. |
|
Definition
There are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters. Dividing them into amino acids, peptides, and monoamines is sufficient for some classification purposes.
Some neurotransmitters are commonly described as "excitatory" or "inhibitory". The only direct effect of a neurotransmitter is to activate one or more types of receptors. |
|
|
Term
What is the brainstem of the CNS generally responsible for?
1.
2.
3. |
|
Definition
1. Brain's most primitive part.
2. Controls simple reflexes such as coughing, sneezing, digestion.
3. Two main parts:
Pons = contains fibers that connect the cerebral cortex with the cerebellum and spinal cord, also controls sleeping, awakening, and dreaming.
Medulla = controls heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure; connects the brain to the spinal cord. |
|
|
Term
| What does the thalamus generally do in the CNS? |
|
Definition
| Sensory information (except smell) |
|
|
Term
| What does the cerebellum generally do in the CNS? |
|
Definition
It receives/relays information via the brain stem. Performs 3 major functions, all of which have to do with skeletal-muscle control:
1. Balance/ Equilibrium of the trunk
2. Muscle tension, spinal nerve reflexes, posture and balance of the limbs
3. Fine motor control, eye movement. |
|
|
Term
| What does the basal ganglia do in the CNS? |
|
Definition
Movement
The basal ganglia are a group of structures, including the globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, subthalamic nucleus, putamen and substantia nigra, that are important in coordinating movement.
The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) are a group of nuclei of varied origin in the brains of vertebrates that act as a cohesive functional unit. They are situated at the base of the forebrain and are strongly connected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and other brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including voluntary motor control, procedural learning relating to routine behaviors or "habits" such as bruxism, eye movements, and cognitive, emotional functions. |
|
|
Term
| What does the basal nuclei do in the CNS? |
|
Definition
| The term basal nuclei is applied to a collection of masses of gray matter situated within each cerebral hemisphere. They are the corpus striatum, the amygdaloid nucleus, and the claustrum. The basal nuclei play an important role in the control of posture and voluntary movement. |
|
|
Term
| What does the limbic system do in the CNS? |
|
Definition
| The Limbic System is the area of the brain that regulates emotion and memory. It directly connects the lower and higher brain functions. It influences emotions, the visceral responses to those emotions, motivation, mood, and sensations of pain and pleasure. |
|
|
Term
| What is meant by the term dopaminergetic pathway? |
|
Definition
| Dopaminergic pathways are neural pathways in the brain which transmit the neurotransmitter dopamine from one region of the brain to another |
|
|
Term
| What is meant by the term noradrenergic pathway? |
|
Definition
| Areas of the body that produce or are affected by norepinephrine are described as noradrenergic. |
|
|
Term
| What is meant by the term serotinergic pathway? |
|
Definition
| Serotonin pathways are pathways that help to regulate mood control. |
|
|
Term
| What is meant by the term gabanergic pathway? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is meant by the reward/reinforcement pathway? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some of the brain components that are part of the reward/reinforcement pathway? |
|
Definition
Nucleus accumbuns
Prefrontal cortex
VTA |
|
|
Term
| Why would the brain have a region dedicated to reward and reinforcement? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the different types of tolerances? |
|
Definition
Dispositional Tolerance:
The body speeds up the metabolism of the drug in order to eliminate it. This is usually accomplished by an increase in the production of enzymes in the liver that break down the drug. One way of testing the burden of drugs in the body is by measuring these enzymes-if they are high, the body is suffering from the drug effects.
Pharmacologic Tolerance:
With repeated use, the brain's neurons become less sensitive to the effects of the drug and may even produce an antidote or antagonist to the drug. Most neurons react to the overwhelming presence of a neurotransmitter like drug by downgrading the receptors for it. With opioids, the brain can actually produce an opioid antagonist, cholecystoknin, to counteract it's effects. This type of tolerance is very frustrating to drug users, who require increasingly higher doses to achieve the same effect.
Behavioral Tolerance:
The brain learns to compensate for the effects of the drug by using parts of the brain that are not affected. This is how chronic alcohol and marijuana users manage to function quite well despite levels of intoxication that would incapacitate people who are less accustomed to the drug.
Reverse Tolerance:
A drug user may actually become more sensitive to a drug when that drug destorys brain tissue. The excessive sensitivity may alter the overall drug experience to make it less enjoyable. MDMA is an example of a drug that often becomes very disagreeable with extensive use.
Acute Tolerance:
Also known as tachyphylaxis, this is the almost immediate tolerance to the effect of a drug as the body adapts to it. For example, a single dose of most hallucinogens causes a reduced effect if the drug is taken again, and even if a different type of hallucinogen is taken. For LSD-25, Psilocybin, and other hallucinogens, it may take a week to regain full sensitivity to the drug.
Select Tolerance:
The body develops tolerance to different aspects of the drug at different rates. For example, mental tolerance may proceed rapidly, so that the user wants a higher dose, but if physical tolerance has not caught up the user may take a fatal overdose. This has often happened with barbiturates.
Inverse Tolerance:
Repeated use of some drugs can suddenly cause a increased sensitivity to it, as the brain antcipates and enhances its effects. For example, long-term marijuana or cocaine users often become more sensitive to the drug, and even a fake look-alike drug may give them the drug effect, this is known as the Placebo Effect. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Withdrawal is the variety of symptoms that occur after use of some addictive drugs is reduced or stopped. Length of withdrawal and symptoms vary with the type of drug. |
|
|
Term
| What is happening at the nerve cell level during withdrawal? |
|
Definition
| If a substance is taken away from dependent nerve cells, many cells become overactive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Caffeine is a naturally occurring chemical stimulant. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants |
|
|
Term
| How does caffeine affect what the nerve cell is doing? Think receptors. |
|
Definition
| o a nerve cell, caffeine looks like adenosine: Caffeine binds to the adenosine receptor. However, caffeine doesn't slow down the cell's activity like adenosine would. As a result, the cell can no longer identify adenosine because caffeine is taking up all the receptors that adenosine would normally bind to. Instead of slowing down because of the adenosine's effect, the nerve cells speed up. Caffeine also causes the brain's blood vessels to constrict, because it blocks adenosine's ability to open them up. |
|
|
Term
| What does adenosine normally do in the body? |
|
Definition
| As adenosine is created in the brain, it binds to adenosine receptors. This binding causes drowsiness by slowing down nerve cell activity. In the brain, this also causes blood vessels to dilate, most likely to let more oxygen into that organ during sleep. |
|
|
Term
| What are the symptoms, or effects, caffeine has on different body functions? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Can you develop tolerance to caffeine? Explain. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does nicotine work in the blood system? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Can you develop tolerance to nicotine? Explain. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Can you develop, or show signs of withdrawal from nicotine? Explain. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What effects does smoking have on the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does cocaine work on the CNS? |
|
Definition
Cocaine is an indirect dopamine agonist. Once in the brain, it works in large part by occupying, or blocking, dopamine transporter sites in the terminal buttons of neurons in the brain. This prevents the reuptake of dopamine by the neurons that release it, allowing higher concentrations of dopamine to remain in the synapse for an extended period of time. This abnormally long presence, and high concentration, of dopamine in the synapse is believed to cause the high (among other effects) associated with cocaine use. Dopamine has been implicated in several important functions, including movement, attention, learning, and the reinforcing effects of drug use. Therefore, its extended presence in high concentrations will be effective in the particular parts of the brain that control these functions, such as the basal ganglia and the limbic system. |
|
|
Term
| What are the modes of actions associated with amphetamines? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some of the clinical effects of amphetamines? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the different types of amphetamines? From book. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
The membrane of a cell is made up of:
1.
2.
3.
4. |
|
Definition
| 1. Lipids (fats) 2. Proteins 3. Channels 4. Receptors |
|
|
Term
Why would Na+ (sodium) want to get into a cell?
1.
2. |
|
Definition
| 2. The difference in the amount if Na+ outside the cell is different than inside the cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A sodium potassium pump is a mechanism located in the permeable membrane of a cell. It is a mechanism of active transport for molecules through the membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An atom or a group of atoms that has an electric charge. Positive ions, or cations, are formed by the loss of electrons; negative ions, or anions, are formed by the gain of electrons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An energy-consuming mechanism in cell membranes that transports sodium ions across the membrane, in exchange for potassium ions or other substances. |
|
|
Term
| ______________ send messages from the cell to the dendrites of other neurons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______________ is in charge of the neuron's activities. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Covers the axon to protect it and help messages travel faster and easier. |
|
|
Term
| ______________ receive messages from other neurons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the parts of a neuron. |
|
Definition
Dendrites, which receive signals from other nerve cells and relay them through the cell body
Cell Body (soma), which nourishes the cell and keeps it alive
Axon, which carries the message from the cell body to the terminals
Terminals, which relay messages to the dendrites, cell body, or terminals of the next nerve cell |
|
|
Term
| True or False: K+ (potassium) has a higher concentration outside the cell compared to inside the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which two neurotransmitters seem to play the biggest role in just normal control of the CNS? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Glucose is needed in the cell, yet does not get across the membrane easily. Which ion has the strongest driving force to use as a "co-transporter+ to get the glucose in the cell? |
|
|
Term
| Define membrane potential. |
|
Definition
| Membrane potential (or transmembrane potential ), is the voltage difference (or electrical potential difference) between the interior and exterior of a cell. |
|
|
Term
| ______________ covers the axon to protect it and help messages travel faster and easier. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glucose is needed in the cell, yet does not get across the membrane easily. Which ion has the strongest driving force to use as a "co-transporter+ to get the glucose in the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protein channel is the pathway by which small molecules or ions cross the cell membrane into or out of cell. The process which enables the movement is called diffusion. Most of the channels are usually selective and they include; potassium and sodium channels. |
|
|
Term
1. Lipids (fats)
2. Proteins
3. Channels
4. Receptors |
|
Definition
The membrane of a cell is made up of:
1.
2.
3.
4. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The science dealing with the preparation, uses, and especially the effects of drugs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The semipermeable membrane enclosing the cytoplasm of a cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The state of being enslaved to a habit or practice or to something that is psychologically or physically habit-forming, as narcotics, to such an extent that its cessation causes severe trauma. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| True or False: K+ (potassium) has a higher concentration outside the cell compared to inside the cell? |
|
|
Term
1. The voltage (charge) is something Na+ (sodium) likes.
2. The difference in the amount if Na+ outside the cell is different than inside the cell. |
|
Definition
Why would Na+ (sodium) want to get into a cell?
1.
2. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ______________ covers the axon to protect it and help messages travel faster and easier. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ______________ is in charge of the neuron's activities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ______________ receive messages from other neurons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ______________ send messages from the cell to the dendrites of other neurons. |
|
|
Term
| What does the hypothalamus do? |
|
Definition
| Controls body temperature, hunger and thirst. |
|
|
Term
| What does the cerebellum do? |
|
Definition
| Controls posture, movement and the sense of balance. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two parts of the limbic system? |
|
Definition
Hippocampus = controls learning and memory.
Amygdala - plays important role in emotional behavior. |
|
|
Term
What is the cerebral cortex?
1.
2.
3.
4. |
|
Definition
1. Largest part of the brain.
2. Most highly developed part of the brain.
3. Controls thinking, perceiving and understanding language.
4. Corpus collosum connects the two hemispheres. |
|
|
Term
| Name the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex and their roles. |
|
Definition
1. Right Hemisphere = controls the right side of the body; responsible for mahmatical ability, problem solving, language and decision making.
Left Hemisphere - Controls left side of body; responsible for artistic expression and understanding relationships to space. |
|
|
Term
| Approximately how many neurons are in the brain? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The part of neurons that send messages are the __________? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The part of neurons that receive messages are the __________? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The space between the dendrites of one axon and another neuron is called the ________? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ____________ of a neuron is where genetic material is stored. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Neurons that send information from sensory organs, such as the skin or eyes, to the CNS are called ____________ neurons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Neurons that send information from the CNS to muscles or glands are called ___________ neurons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Poisons that affect neurotransmission are called ____________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___________ cells are brain cells that do many important things that help neurons, uncluding bringing nutrients to neurons, insulating parts of neurons and digesting parts if dead neurons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Who, and in what year, first discovered neurotransmitters during an experiment with two frog hearts? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The transmission of information between neurons is called ________________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
How does neurotransmission work?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. |
|
Definition
1. Message travels from dendrites thru cell body to end of axon.
2. The message causes neurotranmitters to be released from the end of the axon into the synapse.
3. The neurotransmitters then travel across the synapse to receptors.
4. Once the neurotransmitter has attached to the receptors of the second neuron, the message is passed on.
5. The neurotransmitters are released from the receptors and are either broken down or go back into the axon of the first neuron. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron. |
|
|
Term
| What makes phospho-lipids and fatty acids so good at making membranes? |
|
Definition
| They arrange themselves in a very special way, because part of the molecule likes water and part of it does not like water. |
|
|
Term
True or False?
Myelin is a type of insulation that nerve cells use to help the action potential to travel farther and faster down the axon of the nerve cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What statement best describes the pressure on Na+.
1. Hi concentration on the inside of the cell; positive charge on the inside of the cell.
2. Hi concentration on the inside of the cell; negative charge in the inside of the cell.
3. Low concentration on the inside of the cell; positive charge on the inside of the cell.
4. Low concentration on the inside of the cell; negative charge on the inside of the cell. |
|
Definition
| 4. Low concentration on the inside of the cell; negative charge on the inside of the cell. |
|
|
Term
Which proten sitting at the wall of the cell acts to keep more Na+ outside the cell and more K+ (potassium) inside the cell?
1. Sodium channels (doors)
2. Potassium channels (doors)
3. Sodium/potassium pump |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What is an action potential?
1.
2.
3. |
|
Definition
1. A change in voltage across the membrane of a cell.
2. Used as a signal for the cell to do something.
3. Necessary for getting a signal from one cell (neuron) to another cell. |
|
|
Term
True or False
A cell will use a molecule called "ATP" as energy to get work done inside the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
True or False
Neurons only have one synapse communicating information to them? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
The term nuclei means?
1. A group of neurons that are close to each other.
2. Share connections (synapse) with each other.
3. Share a common function (like controlling movement.
4. All of the above. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
The cerebellum is a structure of the brainstem that is responsible for:
1. The feeling of touch
2. Knowing where your body is in space
3. Causing a reflex in the knee |
|
Definition
| 2. Knowing where your body is in space |
|
|
Term
True or False
All neurons look alike? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which statement describes a way to disrupt the processes of communication at a chemical synapse?
1. Put more enzymes that break down neurotransmitters close to the synaptic cleft.
2. Alter (change) the voltage (electrical charge) coming down the presynaptic cell axon.
3. Add a molecule to the cleft that will link to the same receptor proteins that neurotransmitters link to.
4. All of the above |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Which of the statement is not true when describing a chemical synapse
1. Vesicles release molecules (neurotransmitters) into an open space called a synaptic cleft.
2. Molecules from the presynaptic cell must link up with proteins on the postsynaptic cell to start an action potential.
3. The neurotransmitter can travel unchanged to the postsynaptic cell using a direst tunnel.
4. Receptor proteins on the postsynaptic cell can be linked to sodium channels. |
|
Definition
| 3. The neurotransmitter can travel unchanged to the postsynaptic cell using a direst tunnel. |
|
|
Term
| What does the hypothalamus do? 1. 2. 3. |
|
Definition
| 1. Controls hormones in the body 2. A region that sits underneath the thalamus 3. A region that considered part of the "reward pathway" |
|
|
Term
True or False
The medulla oblongata is an important region controlling "vegetative" functions (breathing, heart functions, stomach-intestinal functions) in the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
The thalamus is an important group of neurons because it acts as a (n) _________ in the brain?
1. Reflex controller
2. Are organizing all sensory information (except smell)
3. Adviser to the cortex controlling motor movement |
|
Definition
| 2. Are organizing all sensory information (except smell) |
|
|
Term
| In the peripheral nervous system, neurons can be functionally divided what three ways? |
|
Definition
1. Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central nervous system from sense organs or motor
Efferent - carry information away from the central nervous system (for muscle control)
2. Cranial - connects the brain with the periphery or spinal - connects the spinal cord with the periphery.
3. Somatic - connects the skin or muscle with the central nervous system or visceral - connects the internal organs with the central nervous system. |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the Cerebral Cortex? |
|
Definition
Thought
Voluntary movement
Language
Reasoning
Perception |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the Cerebellum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the brainstem? |
|
Definition
Breathing
Heart Rate
Blood Pressure |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the hypothalamus? |
|
Definition
Body Temperature
Emotions
Hunger
Thirst
Circadian Rhythms |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the thalamus? |
|
Definition
Sensory processing
Movement |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the hippocampus? |
|
Definition
Learning
Memory
The hippocampus is one part of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning. |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the midbrain? |
|
Definition
Vision
Audition
Eye Movement
Body Movement |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the limbic system? |
|
Definition
Emotions
Memory
The limbic system (or the limbic areas) is a group of structures that includes the amygdala, the hippocampus, mammillary bodies and cingulate gyrus. These areas are important for controlling the emotional response to a given situation. The hippocampus is also important for memory. |
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|
