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| philosopher and psychologist. He formed the first psychology lab in 1879 at the University of Leipzig where he was a professor. |
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| developed and influential theory of personality; an Austrian physician. Presented many ideas which are viewed as very controversial. |
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| pioneered the study of learning; a Russian physiologist. |
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| the last century’s most influential observer of children; Swiss biologist. |
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| American philosopher. Authored and important 1890 textbook; wrote like a novelist. His brother Henry, who was a novelist, wrote like a psychologist. |
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| first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association. |
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| first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D |
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| Psychology developed from... |
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| the more established fields of Biology and Philosophy. |
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| Introspection--(Until the 1920s) |
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psychology was defined as “the science of mental life.” Proponents: Wundt and James.
Freud focused on the way emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious though processes affect our behavior. |
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| Behaviorism (1920 - 1960) |
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| psychology was redefined as “the scientific study of observable behavior.” Proponents: American psychologists John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner. |
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| the veiw that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2). |
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| focused on current environmental influences on our growth potential and the importance of our needs for love and acceptance being satisfied. Proponents: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow |
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| Humanistic Psychology, definition |
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| historically significant perspective on the growth potential of healthy people & the individual’s potential for personal growth. |
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| initial interest in mental processes recaptured. Cognitive neuroscience of today is a result. |
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| he interdisciplinary study of the brain activity lined with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) |
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| Current Definition of Psychology: |
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the science of behavior and mental processes.
behavior--anything an organism does
mental--interior subjective experiences |
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| (aka Hereditary-Environment Issue)--the controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience to the development of our traits and behaviors. In other words: Do our traits develop through out experiences or are we born with them. It is psychology’s biggest and most persistent issue. |
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| the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. |
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| an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. |
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Natural selection of adaptive traits
Genetic predispositions responding to environment
Brain mechanisms
Hormonal Influences |
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Learned fears and other learned expectations
Emotional Responses
Cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations |
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| Social-cultural Influences |
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Presence of others
Cultural, societal, and family expectations
Peer and other group influences
Compelling models (such as media) |
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| pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base (e.g. biological, developmental, cognitive, or social psychologists) |
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| scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (e.g. industrial-organizational psychologists) |
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| a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. |
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| a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. |
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| a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy |
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| the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon. It is the tendency to believe, after learning and outcome, that we would have foreseen it. |
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| udgemental Overconfidence and Hindsight Bias ... |
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| often lead us to overestimate our intuition. |
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| Scientific inquiry in psychology ... |
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| is characterized by curious skepticism and humility. |
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| thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. |
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| the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. |
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| Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review. A psychologically proven study method that gives these five steps. |
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| an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events |
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| a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
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| a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures.” Scientists use to report their research. |
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| Theories ---> lead to ---> hypotheses ---> lead to ---> Research and observations ---> which confirm, reject, or revise ---> Theories. |
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| repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. |
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| Description, Correlational, & Experimenta |
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| Case Study, Survey, Naturalistic Observation |
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| an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Note: though these can produce fruitful ideas, to discover general truths that cover these individual cases, we must answer questions with other research methods. |
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| a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Note: Before accepting survey findings, think critically. Consider the sample. You cannot compensate for an unrepresentative sample by simply adding more people.) |
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| all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.) |
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| a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. |
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| observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Like case studies and surveys, it does not explain behavior, just describes it |
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| the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other |
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the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1. Shows the extent to which to things relate.
Positive correlation-- (between 0 and +1.00) indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together and decrease together.
Negative correlation-- (between 0 and -1.00) indicates an inverse relationship: as one thing increases, the other decreases. |
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| the perception of a relationship where none exists. Like many superstitions. |
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| Correlation and Causation |
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| Correlation points us towards predictions, but usually imperfect ones. Just because it indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, correlation does not prove causation |
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| a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. |
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| -the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. |
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| he outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. |
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| assigning participants to expirimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. |
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| in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
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| in an experiment, the group that is not exposted to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
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| an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug studies. |
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| an inert substance or condition given in place of the active substance or condition without the recipient’s knowledge. |
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| expirimental results cause by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. |
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| An experiment creates ... |
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| theoretical principles; and it is those principles--not the specific findings--that help explain everyday behaviors. |
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Psychology is concerned for humans and sensitive to animals. In spite of experiments done on some animals, it benefits the welfare of both animals and humans.
Psychology is NOT value-free.
Attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, but the underlying principles of psychology remain mostly the same, because of our human kinship. Even between genders there are more similarities than differences.
Researches may temporarily stress or decieve people in order to experiment. But there are ethical standards that are maintained |
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