• Social behaviour arises from reinforcement (anticipation of reward)
• Verplank's research on approval in conversation

• Bindle
• Behaviour the result of awareness on the social roles we are expected to fill

• Daryl Bem
• We infer our attitudes from our behaviours

• Cognitive dissonance describes a state of discomfort when there is discord between attitudes and behaviour
• In self-perception theory, initial attitude is irrelevant to later behaviour

• Individual will stop liking something that he/she liked previously when they are suddenly rewarded for it

• Fritz Heider
• Consistency theory
• We try to maintain balance between ourselves, others, and shared attitudes
• There is balance when we (dis)like the same things as a person we like, and when we (dis)like the opposite things as a person we dislike

• Dissonant elements are areas of disagreement between attitudes and behaviour. We try to reduce these.
• Consonant elements are areas of agreement between attitudes and behaviour. We try to augment these.
• Cognitive dissonance is reduced by removing dissonant elements and introducing consonant elements.

• Study of forced-compliance dissonance

• Free-choice
• Forced-compliance

• Strategy used to reduce cognitive dissonance
• Augment the positives of the selected choice and the negatives of the rejected choice

• Occurs when there is an attitude change in response to the performance of a dissonant behaviour
• e.g., being paid $1 to say that a boring experiment was fun makes a person think it was fun

• Likelihood of persuasion depends on the (1) communicator (2) communication (3) situation
• Communicator: credible, argues against self-interest
• Communication: presentation of the argument

• Background: attitudes are more likely to change when the argument comes from a highly credible source.
• Over time, persuasion success from low-credibility sources will increase and persuasion success from high-credibility sources will decrease. (sleeper effect).

• Arguments that include both sides of the debate
• More likely to change attitudes, because they are seemingly objective

• Petty & Cacioppo
• Two routes of persuasion: central (when we care about the topic) and peripheral (when we don't care or cannot follow)
• Strength of the argument matters in the central route
• Other factors are more important in the peripheral route

• Beliefs that aren't usually questioned
• Used in William McGuire's studies on persuasion and inoculation

• By refuting the argument against a belief, you motivate individuals to defend

• Maintaining a belief that has been shown to be false
• Occurs when individuals are presented an idea and asked to explain it

• Rebellion against social pressures
• Occurs when social pressures are strong enough to negate sense of freedom

• Leon Festinger

1. We prefer nonsocial means of comparison, but when that isn't possible we evaluate ourselves in terms of others.
2. We make comparisons against similar others.
3. We change our attitudes to align with our group.

• We like those who like us (& vice versa)

• Aronson & Linder
• Derivative of the reciprocity hypothesis
• We have stronger liking/disliking for those whose opinions of us have changed

• In relationships we try to maximize gains and minimize costs

• In relationships we want the cost/reward ratio to be equal to that of our partner's
• Instability when ratios are unequal

• We choose partners that complement our needs

• Attribute positive traits to attractive people

• Similar characteristics
• Attractiveness
• Spatial proximity

• Zajonc (not the developer, but did important research)
• Familiarity, based on repeated exposure to a stimuli, predicts liking

• Diffusion of responsibility
• Social influence

• When attempting to determine whether or not an event is an emergency, people will take cues from others nearby

• Occurs when social influence leads an individual to interpret an event as a nonemergency

• Batson
• We are inclined to help others when we feel distress or empathy toward their situation
• Empathy is the more robust predictor of helping behaviour

• Aggression results from frustration (magnitudes correlate)

• Asked participants to estimate the distance a point of light moved
• Solitary estimates were different from group estimates -- participant's responses adhered to the group's

• A point of light fixed in place on a dark wall appears to move
• Used in Muzafer Sherif's study: participants had to estimate amount of movement

• Clark and Clark (1947)
• White and black children prefered white dollies
• Findings from more sound paradigms counter this fact

• The personality traits we endorse depends on the situation we are in
• Explains why certain individual traits are more closely tied to our identities
• We adhere to roles for traits that are salient

• Fritz Heider
• We try to infer the causes of others' behaviour using dispositional or situational attributions

• We tend to assume dispositional attributions underly others' behaviours

• Our general impression of a person colours our specific predictions or impressions
• e.g., if I like someone I might say that they are good at x, y, and z

• M. J. Lerner
• Belief that good things happen to good people (& vice versa)

• In the presence of others, arousal enhances the expression of the dominant response

• Loss of personal identity when in an anonymizing situation
• Prison simulation

• When making decisions as a group, consensus is more important than exploring discordant avenues

• Decisions made by groups are riskier than the decisions made by individuals

• Risky shifts in group decision-making occur when being risky is culturally valued

• Group decision-making enhances the initial tendencies of the group's individuals, such that the final decision is either riskier or more cautious than the choice that would have been made by an individual member within the group

Trait that increases perceived leadership ability

• Communication (i.e., amount of time talking)

• Autocratic leadership: more hostile, aggressive, productive and dependent on leader
• Democratic leadership: more cohesive, motivation, interest, and satisfaction
• Laissez-faire: less efficient, organized, and satisfying

• Compete by not confessing
• Cooperate by confessing

• Goals that require intergroup cooperation
• Can reduce intergroup hostilities, as in the Robber's Cave study

• John Locke
• Thomas Hobbes
• George Berkeley
• David Hume
• James Mill
• John Stuart Mill

• Believed that children are born without innate tendencies

• To be able to adapt to our environments we must study the mind as it functions

• Psychodynamic: subconscious conflicts influence development
• Psychosocial: social environment and learning influence development
• Cognitive: thought processes influence development

• Participants are selected from various age groups
• Used in developmental research to infer differences as a function of age

• Participants from several age groups are studied longitudinally

• Down's syndrome
• PKU
• Klinefelter's syndrome
• Turner's syndrome

• Genetic disorder that causes mental retardation
• Individuals lack the enzyme required to breakdown phenylalanine
• First genetic disorder that could be tested in large populations

• Males possess extra X chromosome
• Sterile
• Mental retardation

• Females possess a single X chromosome
• Inability to develop secondary sex characteristics
• Physical abnormalities
• Mental retardation

• 0 - 2 weeks
• Embryo becomes implanted in uterine wall

• 2 - 10 weeks after conception
• Cell division
• Fetus takes on human form
• First behaviours: motor movement
• External genitalia develop
• Males begin androgen production

• 3 months after conception
• Neural activity
• Physical development

• Newborn reflex to turn the head in the direction of cheek stimulation

• Newborn reflex whereby child will respond to rapid head movements by flinging arms out and then back in
• Disappears ~ 4 mo

• Newborn reflex whereby toes spread when the sole is stimulated

• Process of aligning schema and information retrieved from the environment

1. Assimilation: information is assimilated into existing schema
2. Accomodation: schema are revised to account for new information

• Coordinated body movements
• Sensorimotor stage

• Manipulation of external objects in infancy
• Sensorimotor stage

• 0 - 2 years
• Primary circular reactions
• Goal-directed behaviour
• Secondary circular reactions
• Object permanence
• Ends when child is able to create abstract representations of objects or events (e.g., object permanence)

• 2 - 7 years
• Beginning of representational thought (i.e., have representations of displaced objects, events)
• Centration
• Egocentrism
• Conservation

• Focusing on a single feature
• Characteristic of cognition in preoperational stage
• e.g., conservation

• Ability to recognize that an object does not change just because its physical appearance does
• Skill not developed until concrete operational stage of development

• 7 - 11 years
• Children are able to think logically about concrete (i.e., knowable) objects

• Adolescence onward
• Ability to think logically about abstract concepts

• Cognitive abilities develop through the internalization of cultural elements

• Vygotsky
• Skills that a child possesses to some extent, but cannot be realized without the guidance of an adult

• 18 - 20 mo
  
  

• at 2.5 - 3 years old, children will begin to make more grammatical errors
• Indicates that children are internalizing a set of rules
• Suggests against learning through immitation

• By age 5

• Noam Chomsky
• Changing of word order such that the meaning of the sentence does not change
• Children are able to make transformations

• Noam Chomsky
• Children born with the ability to master language

• Libido

1. Oral

2. Anal

3. Phallic

4. Latency

5. Genital

• 0 - 1 years
• Libidinal energy centred on the mouth
• Fixation leads to dependency

• 1 - 3 years old
• Fixation leads to orderliness or sloppiness

• 3 - 5 years old
• Also called Oedipal stage
• Child must resolve Oedipal/Electra conflict
• Sexual energy is channeled into morally correct outlets
• Establishment of sexual identity (identifying with the same-sex parent)

• Lasts between the time the libido is sublimated (end of the phallic stage) and the beginning of puberty

• Puberty - adulthood
• Person will enter heterosexual relationship

1. Trust vs. mistrust (0 - 1 years)
2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (1 - 3 years)
3. Initiative vs. guilt (3 - 6 years)
4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 - 12)
5. Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence)
6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)
7. Generativity vs. stagation (middle age)
8. Integrity vs. despair (old age)

• First weeks: undifferentiated reactions to adults.
• 3 months: discern familiar faces.
• 6 months: seeks and responds to the mother in particular.
• 9-12 months: bonds with familiars, stranger anxiety.
• 2 years: separation anxiety.
• 3 years: separation anxiety disappears.

A. Insecure/avoidant

B. Secure

C. Insecure/resistant

• Preconventional morality: right/wrong based on punishment/reward.
• Punishment and obedience
• Instrumental relativist stage: reciprocity.

• Conventional morality: social rules.
• Good girl/nice boy: seeking approval.
• Law-and-order: rules of authority.

• Post conventional morality
• Social contract: rules are a social contract for the greater good.
• Universal ethical priniples

1. Gender labeling (2 - 3 years): children can label their own and others' genders.
2. Gender stability (3 - 4 years): children recognize that gender does not change based on roles or clothing.
3. Gender consistency (4 - 7 years): permanency of gender.

• Martin and Halverson
• Once children are able to label their own genders they pay attention to the behaviours expected of their gender and less attention to the other gender's behaviours

• Sounds of language

• Ability to distinguish sounds that have linguistic meaning from irrelevant sounds in the environment

• William Sheldon
• Bodies that are rotund have happy-go-lucky personality

• William Sheldon
• Bodies that are muscular and rectangular have dominating personality

• William Sheldon
• Bodies that are thin have shy personality

• Approach to psychology concerned with consciousness and introspection
• Titchener
• Spawned functionalism, behaviourism, and Gestalt psychology

• Approach to psychology interested in the adaptiveness of behaviour
• Stream of consciousness
• Dewey, James

• Maslow, Carl Rogers
• People should be treated as whole and not reduced to behaviours and instincts
• Free will

• Disorder caused by syphilis
• Grandeur, mental decline, paralysis, death
• Important in the history of abnormal psychology because scientists learned that mental disorders could have organic etiologies

• 1950s

• Psychodynamic
• Behaviourist
• Phenomenological
• Type and trait

• When we are unable to meet our needs and desires, the id conjures a mental image (e.g., dream, memory) of the thing we wanted

• Process of the id, which is to meet hedonistic desires now

• Process of the ego, which mitigates the id's drive for immediate pleasure

• Used to describe the ego
• Ego serves the id in that it seeks the object that is desired, but it does so in a way that acknowledges reality (i.e., pragmatically)
• This underlies cognition (e.g., planning, perception) via the reciprocal relationship between the id/ego

• Pleasure principle
• Reality principle
• Morality

• Conscience: concept of what is wrong.
• Ego-ideal: concept of what is right.

• Psychological representations of bodily needs

• Life instinct
• Exercized through the libido

• Death instinct
• Desire to reach final state

• Repression
• Suppression
• Projection
• Reaction formation
• Rationalization
• Regression
• Sublimation
• Displacement

• Emotional thoughts/images that comprise the collective unconscious
• Persona
• Anima, animus
• Shadow
• Self

• Archetype of social role

• Archetypes of femininity and masulinity, respectively

• Archetype of animal instincts from when we were lower beings
• Explains our less-than-savory urges

• Archetype that pushes toward unity of personal identity

• Introversion and extroversion

• Personality arises from the quest for superiority and family/social interactions
• Normal personality when quest for superiority benefits others and ourselves

• Alfred Adler
• Force that pushes individuals to develop a unique personality

• Alfred Adler
• Manifestation of the creative self (personality-driving force) through which the individual finds his/her path to superiority

• Alfred Adler
• Behaviour is motivated by expectations for the future

• Object refers to the developing personality
• Relations refers to the fact that the object is developed through our relationships as children
• Psychoanalytic
• Object-relations theorists: Melanie Klein, D. W. Winnicott, Margaret Mahler, and Otto Kernberg

• Occurs in psychoanalysis
• Patient may resist by forgetting a dream or memory, missing a session, or blocking free associations
• Therapist analyzes these resistances for meaning

• Occurs in psychoanalytic therapy when the patient attributes qualities of individuals in his/her past to the therapist, such that conflicts can be faced and resolved

• When taking on the desires and beliefs of a patient's relations (as is done through psychoanalytic transference), the therapist will develop certain emotions toward the patient

• Modified psychoanalysis that requires less time
• Focus of therapy is on current interpersonal relationships as opposed to those prominent in the psychosexual stages

• Bandura
• Personality is developed through behavioural reinforcement and seeing the behaviours of others being reinforced

• Behaviourists see the maladaptive behaviours as the disorder, rather than seeing them as indicators of a construct (i.e., the disorder)
• Behaviour therapy involves tackling the maladaptive behaviours themselves

• Beck
• Patient writes down thoughts of him/herself
• Needs to identify why these are unjustified and to generate a list that is more realistic and less diminuative

• Albert Ellis
• Therapist challenges irrational beliefs held by client and facilitates generation of more realistic beliefs

• Behaviour therapy tackles maladaptive behaviours, but not underlying psychopathologies
• Since this doesn't get at a "root cause" according to psychoanalysts, they claim that more symptoms will arise (i.e., symptom substitution)

• Study of subjective experience
• Also called humanism because it distinguishes us from animals
• Similar to Gestalt and existential psychology

• Profound and emotional experience that leaves lasting impact on the individual
• Maslow stated that self-actualizers were more likely to have had a peak experience

• Finding meaning in life through autonomous decision-making
• Exploration of thoughts and feelings
• Empathy, understanding, positive emotional regard

• Carl Rogers
• People are autonomous and cannot be reduced to psychological processes
• Therapy through positive view of self and making positive decisions
• Matching the self to the ideal self
• Also called person-centred therapy or nondirective therapy

• People can be categorized based on types of personality

• Theory of personality concerned with determining the fundamental bases of personality

• Gordon Allport
• Personality
• Cardinal trait is that which defines our lives
• Central traits are prominent features of the personality
• Secondary traits are limited in occurance

• Gordon Allport
• Activities undertaken to achieve some goal may become part of the personal repertoire such that the activity is partaken as the goal

• David McClelland
• Personality trait
• Those high on need for achievement avoid high risks and low risks and set realistic goals

• Herman Witkin
• Personality trait that allows individuals to differentiate the perceived world from his/her own personality

1. Clinical disorders (except personality & mental retardation)
2. Personality disorders and mental retardation
3. Medical conditions
4. Psychosocial factors
5. Global Assessment of Functioning

• 3-5% of school-aged children

• 0.0002 - 0.0005%
• (2 - 5 of every 10, 000)

• 0.0004 - 0.0005%
• (4 - 5 of every 10,000)

• Psychotic (e.g., delusions)
• Disorganized (e.g., speech)

• Idea that others are talking about you

• Invention of new words
• Disorganized symptom of schizophrenia

• Period of rapid deterioration of functioning that precedes presentation of schizophrenia

• Slow development
• Poor prognosis

• Rapid onset
• Better prognosis

• Catatonic
• Paranoid
• Disorganized
• Undifferentiated
• Residual

Dysthymia

Dysphoria

• Subclinical MDD
• State of sadness

• Also called monoamine theory
• MDD caused by too little 5-HT and NOR

• Movement or sensory impairment caused by a psychological, rather than organic, cause

• Inability to remember a past experience

• Pattern of maladaptive behaviour that causes impairment in 2+ domains: cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, impulse control

• Detached from social relationships**
• Limited range of emotion

• Prevention of mental illness by providing upstream care

• The whole is something other than the sum of its parts
• Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffa

• Afferent
• Efferent
• Interneurons

• Neural circuit that controls reflexive behaviour
• Interneurons signal motor neurons to act as the message is being sent to the brain - this makes reflexive behaviours more automatic

• Nerve cells that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

• Afferent and efferent fibres that rely signals

• Vegetative functioning

• Acetylcholine

• Adrenaline

• Balance, sleep, arousal, breathing
• Generally, the lower functions needed for survival

• Sensory and motor information
• Reflexes

• Evolution of brain development in humans

• Medulla
• Pons
• Cerebellum
• Reticular formation (extends into midbrain)

• Controls vital functions (breathing, heartrate, blood pressure)

• Relays sensorimotor information between medulla and cortex

• Network of nerves that control arousal (i.e., sleep and waking) and attention
• Located between hindbrain and midbrain

• Receives visual information
• Located in the midbrain

• Receives auditory information 
• Located in the midbrain

• Structure in the forebrain that relays all sensory information (except smell) to the correct brain region

• Lateral, ventromedial, and anterior
• Homeostatic functions (e.g., hunger and thirst) and "drives"
• Emotion
• Aggressive and sexual behaviour
• Endocrine control
• Autonomic nervous system control

• Hunger centre
• Signals body to consume
• Lesions cause aphagia (lack of voluntary consumption)
• Fighting behaviour

• Lack of voluntary food or water consumption

• Satiety centre
• Signals to stop consumption
• Lesions cause hyperphagia (excessive eating)

• Four F's: fighting, fleeing, feeding, sexual functioning
• Hormones

• Endocrine signalling
• Sexual behaviour
• Lesions cause asexuality (lack of voluntary sexual approach)

• Midbrain structure
• Coordinated muscle movement

• Relays information from basal ganglia to CNS

• Fluid-filled cavities connected to the spinal canal, which moves from the brain along the spinal cord

• Amygdala
• Septum
• Hippocampus

• Pleasure centre
• James Olds & Peter Milner discovered that stimulation of the septum was associated with pleasure
• Inhibits aggression

• Aggressive behaviour that occurs when the septum is legioned

• Bilateral amygala lesions
• Docility
• Hypersexuality
• Hyperphagia

• Aggressive and defensive states
• Kluver & Bucy's studies with monkeys

• Frontal lobe
• In the dominant hemisphere

• Temporal lobe
• Language reception and comprehension

• Another name for the visual cortex

• Sensorimotor
• Spatial processing

• Custodial functions that support neurons
• Responsible for myelination

1. Resting potential -70 mV
2. Depolarization - 50 mV
3. Action potential spike (+35 mV)
4. Repolarization (movement back to negative)
5. Hyperpolarization (> |70| mV)

• Graded potentials
• Excitatory postsynaptic potentials
• Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

• Movement in the PNS
• Memory, Alzhemier's

• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• Dopamine

• Alertness and wakefulness
• Mood disorders

• Movement
• Posture

• Class of antipsychotic that reduce receptor sensitivity to dopamine

• Also called neuropeptides or neuromodulators
• Act like NTs in the brain
• Endorphins, enkephalins

• Stabilizes neural activity
• Hyperpolarization of the neuron (i.e., inhibitory)

• Behavioural stimulant
• Enhance CNS activity, akin to sympathetic nervous system activation
• Act on DA, NOR, and 5-HT

• Block reuptake of monoamines

• Ritalin
• Amphetamine
• Increases alertness
• Works on DA, NOR, and 5-HT

Mechanism of action of antipsychotics

(thorazine, chlorpromazine, haloperidol, phenothiazine)

• Block DA receptors

• Agonists of opiate receptors, which triggers release of endorphins
• Also mimic the effect of endorphins

• Like the hypothalamus, the four F's
• Fighting, fleeing, feeding, sexual functioning

• Also called gonadotropins
• Released during puberty
• Signals the sex organs to release testosterone or estrogen
• Underlies the development of the secondary sex characteristics

• Follicle-stimulating hormone
• Luteinizing hormone
• Estrogen
• Progesterone

• Released by the pituitary
• Stimulates growth of the ovum's protective follicle

• Stimulates release of egg from the ovaries

• Maturation and release of the ovum from the ovary

• Prepares the body for gestation (i.e., implantation of a fertilized egg)

• Decrease in estrogen and progesterone
• Happens in response to the failure to implant an egg in the uterine wall

• Regulate body growth
• Regulate metabolic rate

• Adrenal medulla

• Increases sugar output of the liver
• Increases HR

• Aphasias
• Amnesia
• Agnosias
• Apraxia
• Dementias

• Language disorder

• Deficits in language production

• Deficits in language comprehension

• Impairment of perceptual recognition

• Impaired organization of motor movement
• Trouble with the organized sequence of a movement, not with paralysis

• Reticular formation
• Regulates sleep and alertness
• Causes prolonged periods of sleep if disconnected from the cortex

• Beta
• Alpha
• Theta
• Delta

• Occur when awake and highly alert
• High frequency

• Occur during relaxed wakefulness
• Slower and more synchronized relative to beta waves

1.  Theta waves with sleep spindles (short alpha and beta bursts). Also slow frequency, irregular waveforms, increasing amplitude.

1. Theta waves continue, frequency slows. K complexes: high voltage peak followed by low voltage valley.
2. Delta waves appear: very low frequency & high voltage.
3. Deep sleep, in which delta waves are at their slowest and sleep spindles at their steepest.
4. REM sleep: resembles alpha waves, but irregular activity.

• When deprived of REM sleep, individuals will spend more time in REM sleep subsequently

• Physiological reactions occur first, and these signal to us to experience the complementary emotion

• Emotional responses reflect parallel neural and physiological activation

• Also called two-factor theory of emotion
• Interpretation of physiological cues, based on appraisal of the environment, dictate emotional response

• Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological reactions to them

• Minimum intensity of stimulus required to activate a sensory system

• Threshold

• Amount of stimulus required to detect that two stimuli are different

• 1 jnd = the difference threshold

• Difference thresholds produce a constant (K), which is a ratio

[image]

• Gustav Fechner
• Sensation intensity increases slower as stimulus intensity increases

• Compares stimulus intensity to stimulus sensation
• Intended to disprove Fechner's law

• The sensation required to perceive a stimulus differs between individuals because of personal differences (e.g., memories, motivation, expectations)
• Signal detection is a combination of sensitivity to a signal and response bias

• Used to measure signal detection
• No stimulus is presented -- question is whether or not the participant indicates perceiving the stimulus

• Personal likelihood of reporting a signal
• Based on nonsensory factors

• Receiver operating characteristic
• John A. Swets
• Used to map hits, misses, false alarms, and correct negatives (signal detection theory)

1. Reception: receptors detect signal
2. Transduction: physical stimulus converted to neural impulses
3. Neural signals disseminated via projection areas in the brain

• Also called duplexity
• Retina contains two types of photoreceptors

• Bundled ganglion cells form the optic nerve
• Send information to the brain

• Images are projected from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve
• At the optic chiasm, nasal fibres crossover (temporal fibres continue ipsilaterally)
• Images move through the laternal geniculate nucleus of the thalamus
• Signals are sent to the visual cortex and superior colliculus

[image]

• Hubel & Weisel
• Certain cells are maximally receptive to particular visual features

• Respond to orientation and borders

• Detect object movement

• Detect object shape

• Illumination: physical property of light reflected off an object
• Brightness: perceived intensity of light

• Retinal (similar to vitamin A)
• Opsin (a protein)

• Dark/light adaptation
• Simultaneous brightness contrast

• Mixing of pigments

• Mixing of light

• Also called Young-Helmholtz theory
• Retina contains red, blue, and green cones. All colours that we perceive are based on varying activation of these cones

• Also called trichromatic theory
• Retina contains red, blue, and green cones. All colours that we perceive are based on varying activation of these cones

• Interposition
• Relative size
• Linear perspective
• Texture gradient
• Motion parallax (incl. kinetic depth effect)
• Stereopsis

• Overlap of two objects that gives rise to perceived depth

• Also called binocular disparity
• We perceive depth due to disparate images on our two retinas

• Figure
• Ground

• Proximity
• Similarity
• Good continuation
• Subjective contours
• Closure
• Pragnaz

• Wolfgang Kohler
• Objects of perception map perfectly (i.e., to scale) onto patterns of neural activation

• Apparent motion (aka: stroboscopic movement, phi phenomenon)
• Induced motion
• Autokinetic effect
• Motion aftereffect

• Also called stroboscopic movement or the phi phenomenon
• Occurs when two dots of light, flashed in different locations in succession, appear to be a single beam of moving light

• Apparent motion
• Also called the phi phenomenon
• Occurs when two dots of light, flashed in different locations in succession, appear to be a single beam of moving light

• Apparent motion
• Also called stroboscopic movement
• Occurs when two dots of light, flashed in different locations in succession, appear to be a single beam of moving light

• Proximal: image projected onto the retina; what is perceived
• Distal: actual object

• Size
• Shape
• Lightness
• Colour

• Perceived size of an object depends on its distance from the viewer

• Visual illusion demonstrating size constancy
• Although both people appear to be the same distance from the viewer, one is much further away. The brain perceives that one person is huge and the other is tiny.

• Example of visual constancy processes
• Moon looks larger when on the horizon then at zenith

• [image]

• Frequency: cycles per second (Hz); inversely related to wavelength
• Intensity: amplitude/loudness (bels, decibels)

Objective

• Frequency
• Intensity

Subjective

• Pitch
• Timbre
• Loudness

• Subjective perception of frequency

• Subjective perception of intensity

• Malleus: hammer
• Incus: anvil
• Stapes: stirrup

• Connected to the middle ear via the stapes (i.e., stirrup), which touches the oval window
• On the cochlea lies the basilar membrane, which contains the organ of Corti

• Location of auditory receptors in the inner ear
• Hair cells bend when exposed to noise stimulus, which sends electrical signal to brain via auditory nerve

• Vibrations in the ossicles move into inner ear via the oval window
• Cochlear fluid receives vibrations
• Basilar membrane receives vibrations
• Vibrations in the basilar membrane cause movement in the tectorial membrane above
• Hair cells on organ of Corti send electrical signals to the brain via the auditory nerve

1. Auditory nerve
2. Superior olive
3. Inferior colliculus
4. Medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus)
5. Auditory cortex

• Helmholtz and Young
• We perceive pitch because each pitch sitmulates a unique place on the basilar membrane

• We perceive pitch because rate of basilar membrane vibration equals frequency of the stimulus
• Limited to sounds less that 1000 Hz

• Wever and Bray
• Expansion of frequency theory
• High rates of neural firing (i.e., exceeding 1000 Hz) can be achieved if nerve fibres cooperate

• Von Bekesy
• Although all sounds cause vibrations along the entire basilar membrane, there is differentially greater vibration in certain areas depending on freqency of the stimulus
• High frequencies cause greater vibrations near the oval window
• Low frequencies cause greater vibrations near the tip of the cochlea

• Olfactory epithelium (upper nasal passage)

• Touch receptors for deep pressure

• Touch receptors

• Touch receptors for slow indentation

• Touch receptors for warmth

• Two-point thresholds refer to the distance required for two points of pressure to be perceived as distinct
• Depends on the density of nerve fibres in the skin

• Skin temperature is physiological zero
• Perception of warming up or cooling down correspond with changes in ambient temperature against the skin

• Perception of the body's orientation

• Performance is weak at very high and very low levels of arousal

• Clark Hull
• Also known as drive-reduction theory
• Behaviours are motivated by reducing biological drives

• Study of animals in their natural habitat

• Occurs when a new stimulus is repeatedly presented prior to the conditioned stimulus, causing the specimen to exhibit the conditioned response to a stimulus that is not paired with the unconditioned stimulus

• Occurs when you repeatedly expose a specimen to paired (i.e., two) neutral stimuli, condition a response to one of these stimuli, then observe the conditioned response when the other stimulus is presented

• Robert Rescola
• Classical conditioning depends on contingencies, not temporal association
• So long as a neutral stimulus is salient and provides meaningful predictive value, it need not be presented temporally close to an unconditioned stimulus in order to become a conditioned stimulus

• When a contingency is learned, such that CS --> CR, neutral stimuli that may also predict the UCS are not learned

• E. L. Thorndike
• Reinforced responses are more likely to reoccur (and vice versa)

• Thorndike pioneered law of effect
• His ideas were based on pleasure and annoyance (i.e., annoying outcomes would be avoided behaviourally, etc.)
• Skinner held same ideas, except operationalized them into reinforcement and punishment

• Escape: certain behaviour stops the unpleasant outcome
• Avoidance: certain behaviour prevents unpleasant outcome from ever occurring

• Stimulus that indicates that a behaviour will have consequences

• Extiction of a behaviour takes longer when the behaviour was only reinforced some of the time

• Shaping

• Behaviour therapy in which individual pictures himself in an anxiety-provoking situation

• Behavioural therapies that rely on operant conditioning

• A more-preferred stimulus can be used to reinforce a less-preferred stimulus
• Used in behaviour therapies

• Monkeys problem solving by demonstrating insight

• Understanding of relationships that allows for complex problem-solving

• Animal instincts or behavioural predispositions
• Constraints because they prevent conditioning paradigms from working as expected

• Innate ability to associate particular stimuli with particular consequences

• John Garcia
• Rats demonstrated aversive conditioning when electric shock was paired with light-noise/water, and when sweetened water was paired with nausea
• The opposite conditions (i.e., shock/sweet water; nausea/light-noise water) showed no aversive conditioning
• Evidence of preparedness

• Marion & Keller Breland
• Evident when animals act instinctually despite receiveing operant training

• Innate, species typical patterns of complex behaviour

• Trigger fixed-action patterns in animals
• Can be from other animals (i.e., releasers) or the environment
• All releasers are sign stimuli, but not all sign stimuli are releasers

• Trigger fixed-action patterns in animals
• Sign stimuli from other animals
• All releasers are sign stimuli, but not all sign stimuli are releasers

• A sign stimulus that does not occur in nature but is more effective at producing a fixed-action pattern than a sign stimulus

• Mechanism through which animals are able to initiate the correct fixed-action response given the corresponding sign stimulus

• Ebbinghaus

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• Ebbinghaus
• Graph of savings (%) by time (days)
• Demonstrates that, without rehearsal, we forget quickly, but the rate of forgetting tapers off over time

• Recall and recognition tasks involve the same retrieval processes
• Recall tasks have one extra step in the processing of information (i.e., generation of retrieved information)

• Memory is comprised of different systems (i.e., sensory, STM/WM, LTM)

• Participant decides if statement is true or false
• Used to measure degree of semantic relatedness
• Outcome measure: response latency

• Collins and Loftus
• Links between concepts demonstrate semantic relatedness (i.e., shorter distances = closer relationship)

• Smith, Shoben, Rips
• Semantic relatedness depends on the prototypicality of the concept; i.e., does it have features that are required of the concept?

• Craik & Lockart
• Also called depth-of-processing theory
• What is remembered is determined by the level at which the information is processed
• Level 1: physical (visual)
• Level 2: acoustic
• Level 3: semantic

• Paivio
• Abstract information is stored verbally
• Concrete information is stored visually and verbally

• We forget because what we learn afterward interferes

• Recall is easier when the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time of attempted recall

• Example of encoding specificity
• Better recall when mood at the time of encoding matches mood at the time of recall