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Grammar notes
Grammar notes for walsh
165
English
10th Grade
04/03/2012

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Term
False Authority
Definition
Assumption that an expert in one field can be credible in another
Term
Oversimplification
Definition
Statement that levels out relevant consideration in order to imply that there's a single cause to a complex problems
Term
False Dilemma
Definition
Only 2 alternative when there are clearly none
Term
False Cause
Definition
Assumption that because 1 event follows another, 1st is the cause of the second
Term
Argument
Definition
logos - logical
pathos - emotional
ethos - ethical
Term
Closing a paragraph
Definition
1. rephrase thesis / summarize main parts
2. call attention to the larger issue
3.call for change in action
4.vivid image
5.connect with introduction
Term
Opening a Paragraph
Definition
1. unusual fact
2. giving out a bold statement
3. anecdote
4. question the essay will answer
5. appropriate quotes
6. examples
7. general information
8. thesis
Term
Purpose of Argumentation
Definition
Object/goal that writer wants to accomplish
*support a cause
*promote a change
*stimulate interests
*win agreement
*arouse sympathy
*provoke anger
Term
Rogerian Arrangement
Definition
Help clam audience strongly opposed to position

1. intro
2. concession
3. thesis
4. support
5. conclusion
Term
Classical arrangement
Definition
1. intro
2. concession and reputation
3. confirmation paragraph
4. congaing paragraphs

audience not gets to take sides
Term
Exposition
Definition
Classification of discourse that informs instructs, or presents idea of and general truth objectively
Term
Narrations
Definition
Classification of discourse that tells a story
Term
Description
Definition
traditional classification of discourse that depicts images verbally in space and time and arranges those images in a logical pattern such as spatial
Term
Modes of Discourse
Definition
1. Narrations
2. Description
3. Exposition
Term
Audience of Argument
Definition
who is the audience?
what do they know?
what do they believe
what do they expect
how will the audience disagree
what will they want us to answer
how can i use paragraph
should u use language that is formal factual
Term
Square Brackets
Definition
sets off additions

replace ( )
Term
Capitalization
Definition
person place or thing
language, etc
Term
Slash
Definition
mark line division in poetry

between terms to indicate that either term is applicable
Term
Paragraph
Definition
section of writing usually dealing with a single theme
Term
Italics
Definition
titles of separated works, foreign words, names of legal cases, names of ships, submarines, air craft, etc.
Term
Topic Sentence
Definition
expresses main idea of a chapter and comments on main idea
Term
Parts of Paragraph
Definition
*topic sentence
*deductive reasoning
*chronological order
*spatial order
*emphatic order
*logical order
Term
Chronological Order
Definition
arrangement in time
Term
Deductive reasoning
Definition
characterized by the inference of particular instance from a general law
Term
Emphatic Order
Definition
arrangement under importance
Term
Spatial order
Definition
orient the readers focus from right to left, near to far
Term
Rhetorical Fallacies
Definition
guilt by association
non-sequiter
ad hominem
appeal to tradition
bandwagon
begging questions
equivocations
false analogy
red herring
slippery slope
nasty general
oversimplification
false authority
false clause
false dilemma
Term
Logical Order
Definition
Arrange from specific to general or vice versa
Term
ad hominem
Definition
refers to personal attack on an opponent that draws attention away from losses under considerations
Term
non-sequitur
Definition
it does not follow

does not logically follow previous statements
Term
Bandwagon
Definition
"Everyone's doing it, you should do it too"
Term
Appeal to tradition
Definition
Something should be more in a certain way because it happened in past
Term
Begging the question
Definition
assumes what in fact reads to be proven
Term
Equivocation
Definition
"assertion that falsely relies on the use of a term in 2 different sense
Term
Syllogism
Definition
a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from 2 given assured prepositions each of which shares a middle term not present in conclusion
Term
False Analogy
Definition
2 things that are alike in some ways that are alike in others
Term
Slippery Slope
Definition
Assumption that if 1thing is allowed it will be the 1st step in a down crowd spiral
Term
Red Herring
Definition
dodging the real issue by drawing attention to an irrelevance
Term
Hasty Generalization
Definition
conclusion based on too little evidence
Term
Guilt by Association
Definition
unfair attempt to make someone responsible for beliefs / action of others
Term
Disjuncts
Definition
not clearly attached to other elements
Term
Adjuncts
Definition
gives additional information
Term
ADJ and ADV forms
Definition
ADJ and ADV change form to reveal quality quantity and manner
Term
Conjuncts
Definition
shows relationship between parts of a sentence
Term
Prefix
Definition
element placed in beginning of the word to adjust/qualify its meaning
Term
Morpheme
Definition
morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided
Term
Suffix
Definition
morpheme added at the end of the word to form a derivative
Term
Root
Definition
a morpheme which words have been made by additional of prefixes suffixes
Term
commas
Definition
Ancient Greek
-short section of speech

Middle age
-pause in speech

1566(Italy)
-Clarify relationships between phases and clause
Term
4 general purpose of punctuation
Definition
1. to terminate
2. to introduce
3. to separate
4. to enclose
Term
Semicolon
Definition
greek word kolon meaning unit of meaning

connects individual clauses with out coordinations
Term
Comma Rules
Definition
1. nurse come before coordinating conj.
2. comma must follow introductory clause
3. separates words, phrases , clause
4. separates coordinating adj
5. sets off non-essential clauses
6. sets off parenthetical elements
Term
Apostrophe
Definition
indicates ownership & relationships, omissions of letters #'s from certain plurals
Term
Colon
Definition
*Calls attention to what follows
*separates figures in time reference part of spiritual of references, title, from subtitles
Term
Quotation Marks
Definition
Sets off directly quotations, titles, of short works, words used ironically, in combination w/ other punctuation
Not used for paraphrase and indirect
Term
Apostrophe Rules
Definition
1. most singular nouns and indefinite nouns abbreviation and acronyms need '-s' to form possessive case
2.Plural noun ending in '-s' requires possessive case only an apostrophes to form
3.joint ownership -> '-s'/ apostrophe to 2nd noun only
4. separates ownership
5. add's to nouns that .before gerunds
Term
Periods
Definition
Punctuation mark that indicates end of a sentence and abbreviation

Follow indirect question, declarative sentence, and abbreviations
Term
Quotation Mark Rules
Definition
1. single quotation enclose quotations within quotation
2. dialogues enclose in quotation marks
3. commas and periods inside " "
4. semicolon and colon ->outside
5. quotation mark, exclamation points out side the " "
Term
Question mark
Definition
follows direct question
Term
Direct/indirect Discourse
Definition
Direct discourse - exact quotation from another source
Indirect discourse - report of what another source says
-Direct Q phrased as a question
-Indirect question phrased as a statement
Term
Dash
Definition
*mark break in thought
*sets off parenthetical element for emphasis
*follows introductory lot
*abrupt change in time
*flattening in speech
Term
Exclamation Point
Definition
Shows strong feeling
Excited utterance
Term
Dashes vs Parenthesis vs Commas
Definition
*Dashes sets off parenthetical element sharply
*parenthesis - de-emphasize enclosed matter
*comma does nothing
Term
Parenthesis
Definition
set off nonessential matter
enclosed numeral used for list
Term
Ellipsis
Definition
indicates omission from quoted passage
indicates reflection pause
Term
Action Verb
Definition
shows action
Term
Transitive Verb
Definition
takes a direct object
Term
Auxiliary Verb
Definition
adds subtle meaning to a main verb
Term
Nouns
Definition
Person Place Thing
Term
Intransitive Verb
Definition
Doesn't take an object
Term
Count/Non-count Nouns
Definition
count - have singular and plural forms

non count - only one form
Term
Proper Noun vs Common noun
Definition
Proper specific names beginning w/a capital letter
Common nouns refer to any member of a clause / category
Term
Pronouns
Definition
Refers to a previously mentioned noun phrase
5types are - antecedent relative personal interrogative reflexive intensive
Term
Collective Noun
Definition
Can either be singular plural depending on the context
Band
Term
Relative Pronoun
Definition
relates dependent clause to noun in main clause
Term
Antecedent
Definition
pronouns substituted for a noun that occurs earlier in a sentence
Term
Interrogative Pronoun
Definition
Introduce question
Term
Personal Pronoun
Definition
Identifies speaker; person or thing spoken about
Term
Compound Nouns
Definition
Consist of 2 or more words that together name a person place thing idea singularly
Term
Reflexive / Intensive Pronoun
Definition
Direct action back on the subject, use for the emphasis. Personal pronouns + self
Term
demonstrative pronoun
Definition
points out person place thing or idea
Term
Concrete abstract noun
Definition
concrete relate to person, place or thing that can be perceived by one / more of the senses
Term
Gerund
Definition
Verb ending in '-ing' that takes place of a noun
Term
Indefinite Pronoun
Definition
refers to a person, place, thing, or idea. That isn't specifically named
Term
Adjective and Adverbs
Definition
adj - modified nouns / pronoun

adv- modifies verb, adj, and other advs
Term
who vs whom
Definition
who subjective, whom - objective
Term
coordinate adj and articles
Definition
*coordinate adj 2 or more adjectives that modifies same noun / pronoun
*article - a an the
*indefinite - articles - a an
*pefinite article - them
Term
common adjective ending
Definition
-able, -al, -ful, -ic, -ish, -less, - y
Term
Subjuncts
Definition
expands intensify or diminish
subject verb or complement
Term
Adverbs
Definition
Subjuncts
adjuncts
disjuncts
conjuncts
Term
Verb
Definition
a word used to describe an action, state or being, and forms the main part of the predicate in sentence
Term
Capitalization
Definition
first word of a sentence "I" names and initials of persons names of months and weekdays title that imitate precedence names other proper noun adjective
Term
4 Form of Verbs
Definition
Base form -'s form, -ing form, -ed form
Term
Present Tense
Definition
Expresses an action now going or habitually performed or a condition now existing
Term
simple present
Definition
Includes the base form and/or -s ending
Term
Present Progressive
Definition
Indicates that events have begun but have not been completed it uses the auxiliary verb be and the present participle -ing form
Term
Present Perfect Tense
Definition
indicates action performed prior to a particular time. It uses the auxiliary verb 'have' and the past participle '-ed'
Term
Present Perfect Progressive
Definition
Consist of two auxiliaries have and been accompanied the present participle of '-ing'
Term
Past Tense
Definition
expresses an action that has happened or a state that previously existed
Term
Simple Past
Definition
Includes the base form and the -ed ending
Term
Past Progressive
Definition
indicates action performed prior to a particular time. It uses the auxiliary verb 'be' and the present participle of '-ing'
Term
Past Perfect
Definition
Indicates action performed prior to a particular time. It uses auxiliary verb 'had' and the past participle '-ed'
Term
Past Perfect Progressive
Definition
Consist of 2 auxiliaries 'had and been' accompanied the present participle of '-ing'
Term
Future Tensed
Definition
expresses events that have not yet happened
Term
Simple Future
Definition
Includes the base form accompanied by the auxiliary verb will
Term
Future Progressive
Definition
Indicates that event have begun but not been completed
Term
Future Perfect
Definition
Indicated action performed prior to a particular time.
Term
Future Perfect Progressive
Definition
Consist of 3 auxiliary verbs will have and been accompanied by the present participle of -ing
Term
Indicative
Definition
used for statement and question regarding fact or opinion
Term
verb mood
Definition
indicative, subjunctive, imperative, conditional
Term
imperative
Definition
Command / direction - simple base form
Term
subjunctive
Definition
imagined wished possible
*present sub-base form
*past - were and past participle
*Perfect had and past participle
Term
Kinds of Verbs
Definition
1. action
2. linking
3. auxiliary
4. transitive
5. intransitive
Term
Conditional
Definition
causes something else to happen
Term
linking verb
Definition
expressing being / experiencing
Term
sentence
Definition
a complete thought typically containing a subject or predicate
Term
declarative
Definition
sentence that takes the form a simple statement in a sentence or phrase
Term
Interrogative
Definition
a sentence ending in a question
Term
Imperative
Definition
A command
Term
Exclamatory
Definition
Exclamation
Term
Subject
Definition
a noun phrase functioning as one of the main component of a clause
Term
Articles
Definition
a, an , the
Term
Predicate
Definition
a part of the sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject
Term
Compliment
Definition
A word phase or clause government by a verb that completes the meaning of the predicate
Term
Types of Complement
Definition
Direct object indirect object, subject, complement object complement
Term
Direct Object
Definition
Recessive the action or shows the result of the action of a verb
Term
indirect object
Definition
noun phrase referring to someone or something that is affected by the action of a transitive verb but is not the primary subject
Term
Subject complement
Definition
describe, identifies or classifies the subject it follows the verb like a direct or indirect object
Term
Object Complement
Definition
Follow a direct object, descending, identifying, or classifying it
Term
Clause
Definition
Grammatical unit that makes up a sentence
Term
Independent Clause
Definition
Main clause that has the same grammatical structure as a simple sentence
Term
Dependent Clause
Definition
has a subject and predicate can't stand alone, must be attached to an independent clause
Term
3 types of clauses
Definition
Noun - subject, object
Adj - modifier to noun, pronoun
Adv - Modifiers and usually qualifies the verb
Term
Conjunctions
Definition
connecting words joining single words, phrases or sentence
Term
Coordinating Conjunction
Definition
Joins words or groups of words equal status; link a noun to a noun and adj to adj and phrase to phrase
Term
Correlative conjunction
Definition
coordinating conjunctions that consist of two parts both/and, either/or, neither/nor
Term
Subordinating Conjunction
Definition
joins dependent clauses to main clauses
Term
Phrase
Definition
Group of words that can function as a single unit in a sentence
Term
Noun Phrase
Definition
serves as subjects and complement or objects of prepositions
it consists of a main noun and any accompanying determiners (a,an,the,that)
Term
Verb Phrase
Definition
essential part of the predicate and utilized as nouns or modifiers
Term
Passive voice
Definition
the receiver
Term
participial phrase
Definition
deals with tense / present participial or 'ing' and past participle
Term
Infinitive Phrase
Definition
A phrase notated by the infinitive markers
Term
Preposition
Definition
considered a phrase but can link clauses
Term
Vocative
Definition
Address someone directly
Term
Appositive
Definition
identifies the noun it is near or supplement the noun meaning
Term
Kinds of sentences
Definition
simple, compound, complex, compound-complex
Term
Simple sentence
Definition
Consist of a single independent clause
Term
Compound Sentence
Definition
Consist of at least two independent clause but no dependent clause
Term
Complex Sentence
Definition
has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
Term
Compound - complex sentence
Definition
contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause
Term
Cumulative Sentence
Definition
Main idea comes first ; less important ideas or details follow
Term
Periodic Sentence
Definition
the main idea comes last, just before the period
Term
Fused Sentences
Definition
two independent clause run together without any punctuation at all
Term
Sentence Fragment
Definition
Pieces of a sentence that is incomplete
Term
Anaphora
Definition
the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clause
Term
Asyndeton
Definition
deliberate omission of conjunction in a series of related clauses
Term
Polysyndeton
Definition
The deliberate use of many conjunction for special emphasis to highlight quality or mass of detail or create a flowing sentence patterns
Term
Chiasmus / antimetaboles
Definition
a sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reverse of the first
Term
Stichomythia
Definition
Dialogue which the ending and the beginning of each line echo each other taking on a new meaning with each new li e
Term
Zeugma
Definition
the use of a verb that has two different meanings with objects that complement both meanings
Term
Focus
Definition
a technique in writing where the verbs linked to the subject must be in close proximity for the sentence to succeed
Term
Agreement
Definition
the condition of having the same number gender case or person
Term
Parallelism
Definition
the state of being parallel or of corresponding in some way
Term
Active voice
Definition
emphasizes the doer of the action by making that actor the subject of the sentence
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