Term
|
Definition
| the line where the water surface meets the land surface. ocean currents by waves and tides are the major geologic process here. |
|
|
Term
| coastline (i.e. which geologic processes make them unique/varied) (3) |
|
Definition
-broad regions where land and streams meet the ocean
-influenced by tectonic activity, erosion, and sedimentation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| offshore long sandbards that form a barricade between open-ocean waves and the main shoreline. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a shoreline environment made up of sand and pebbles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a shallow-water current that runs parallel to the shore |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a narrow extension of a beach formed by longshore currents that carry sand to its downcurrent end |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a dome of seawater formed by a hurricane that rises above the level of surrounding ocean surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a muddy or sandy area that is exposed at low tide but is blooded at high tide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the twice-daily rise and fall of the ocean caused by the gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a level surface formed by wave erosion of a rocky shoreline beneath the surface zone, which may be visible at low tide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the fraction of solar energy reflected by a surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an anomalous warming warming of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean that occurs every 3 to 7 years |
|
|
Term
| ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation) |
|
Definition
| a natural cycle of variation in the exchange of heat between the atmosphere and the tropical Pacific Ocean, of which El Nino and a complementary cooling event (La Nina) are a part of |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a climate cycle alternating between cold glacial periods (aka ice ages) and interglacial periods |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where temp. declines, water moves from hydrosphere to cryosphere (aka places where water is ice on earth like antartica, ice sheets expand into lower latitudes, and sea level falls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where temps. rise abruptly, water is transerred from the cryosphere to the hydrosphere, and sea level rises |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a global warming effect that results when a planet with an atmosphere containing greenhouse gases radiates solar energy back into space less efficiently than it would without such an atmosphere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gasses that absorb and reradaite energy when they are present in a planet's atmosphere. greenhouse gases in earth's atmosphere include water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a pattern of periodic variations in Earth's movement around the Sun that affects the amount of solar energy received at Earth's surface. Examples: variations in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the tilt of Earth's axis of rotation, and precession... Earth's wobble about its axis of rotation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a process in which one action produces an effect (the feedback) that tends to slow the original action and stablilize the process at a lower rate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a process in which one action produces an effect (the feedback) that tends to speed up the original action and stabilize the process at a faster rate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The relative effectiveness of greenhouse gases to restrict long-wave radiation from escaping back into space. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a three-dimensional pattern of ocean circulation driven by differences in temperature and salinity that is an important component of the ocean-atmosphere climate system. In the Atlantic, winds transport warm tropical surface water north where it cools, becomes denser, and sinks into the deep ocean. It then reverses direction and migrates back to the tropicss, where it warms and returns to the surface. |
|
|
Term
| aquiclude/confining later |
|
Definition
| a relatively impermeable bed that bounds an aquifier above or below and acts as abarrier to the flow of groundwater |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the mass of water stored beneath Earth's surface
-most underground water that inhabits the pore spaces/air pockets/fractures in rocks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the boundary between the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ratio between the difference in elevation of the groundwater table at two points and the flow distance that the water travels between those two points |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the ability of a solid to allow fluids to pass through it
-/how fast/easy it is for water to pass through the pores in a material |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the percentage of a rock's volume consisting of open pores between grains
-lecture definition: the % of void space in a material (how porous it is); how much water the material is capable of holding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Created when ground water is pumped from a well or underground mine. Groundwater flow changes direction in a portion of the watershed. Instead of moving toward the natural discharge area, the groundwater within the influence of the pump flows toward the well (or mine) from every direction. The pumping well creates an artificial discharge area by drawing down (lowering) the water table around the well. This area of drawdown is called the cone of depression. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sediment that is compacted and bound together by mineral cement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the slow downhill mass movement of soil or other debris at a rate ranging from about 1 to 10 mm/year |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a downhill movement of masses of soil or rock under the force of gravity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all the processes by which masses of rock and soil move downhill under the influence of gravity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a slow mass movement of unconsolidated material that travels as a unit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an accumulation of blocks of fallen rock at the foot of a steep bedrock cliff (created by rock falls) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sediment that is loose and uncemented |
|
|
Term
| landslides (where are they the worst?) |
|
Definition
| places with steep topography |
|
|
Term
| 2 factors that depend how earth materials will flow downhill: |
|
Definition
1). sediment (large rock vs. loose sand)
2). flow vs. slide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
travel fast, but not far
generated at the tops of mountains
occur when rock gets pulled apart at fractures (aka faults, joints, etc)
(ex: old man on mountain) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
chucks of rock slide down a slope as a big piece
slower than rock falls
often occur on tilted bedding planes, joint planes, or fault surfaces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bigger, faster, and more extensive than rockslides
-flow rather than slide
-dry sediemnt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
form of rock slide where rocks slip in coherent units with a backwards rotation
-water usually involved |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
slow downslope movement of unconsolidated soil or debris
-must active during freezing and thawing cycles
-slight, not very dangerous (fencepost tilting) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
fine grained, dry SOIL that moves down slopes
-moves in a "fluid" motion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-fine grained soil with lots of water that flows quickly
-usually happens alongside river valleys
-usually caused by lake floods and sediments mixing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
mixture of coarse sediment (sand and boulders) and water
-consistency of wet concrete
-very fast flow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dipping foliation that was once cohesive mass but begins to slide |
|
|
Term
| What holds slopes together? (8) |
|
Definition
-friction keeps sediment stable
-cohesion
-interlocking of grains
-gravity keeps flatter slopes intact
-surface tension; water holds stuff together like wet sand castles at the beach
-plant roots
-cementation
-artificial structures (drains, support bars, etc). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
another word for "slope failures"
balance between forces holding slope together and gravity
-usually caused by a trigger |
|
|
Term
| triggers (4 general types) |
|
Definition
factors that play into mass into mass wasting events
-addition of water (heavy, reduces friction)
-increase slope angle (i.e. San Gabriel Mountains sleeper bc of tectonic processes)
-reduce the material strength
-shaking (earthquakes) |
|
|
Term
| natural triggers of mass movements (4) |
|
Definition
-water (precipitation, snowment, glacier melt, natural dam failure)
-removal or death of vegetation (fire or insects)
-earthquakes
-steeping via river/coastal erosion |
|
|
Term
| human triggers of mass movement (5) |
|
Definition
-stripping vegetation
-overloading the landscape (ie too many buildings)
-terracing/over-steepening of slops for flat areas
-adding water to a slope
-changing fire frequency |
|
|
Term
| what are the most hazardous mass wasting processes and why? |
|
Definition
slumps, lahars and debris flows
-bc they are usually triggered by a heavy rainfall and/or an eartquake or volcanic eruption |
|
|
Term
| how do we prevent/mitigate mass wasting hazards? (7) |
|
Definition
-get rid of the water
-stabilization/removal of slopes
-riprap (stable rock walls/"blockers" of mass wasting)
-debris flow ponds/catch basins
-deflection walls
-montiroing
-zoning |
|
|
Term
| flood control structures (2 types and how they work) |
|
Definition
-dams and resovoirs
-they can release the water as fast as they want with the dam, even during heavy rain periods where resovoirs are full
-issue? dams can break! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -earthen structures made out of dirt that keep the water in a channel |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -serve same purpose as levees, but usually made of concrete or steel |
|
|
Term
| problems with levees? (5) |
|
Definition
-rivers cant meander
-prevent channels from being able to widen; just makes the water higher (crests)
-no deposition/spreading out of sediment in floodplain
-cut off from wtlands; very little infiltration or evotranspiration
-need constant maintenance |
|
|
Term
The areas that are protected by levees are...
(also, what don't the people in these areas buy.... etc) |
|
Definition
NOT considered part of the flood plain
-people here are not required to buy flood insurance, development is encourages development
failure is not an option bc theres no backup plan |
|
|
Term
| delta maintenance (what are they and how do they work?) |
|
Definition
-another flood control process
-deltas move sediment and whatever out into the ocean and are stripping away the coast/making it more shallow towards the sea level
-delta wetlands are important barriers for storm surges |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-not covered by normal house insurances
-flood damages are fixed by government in low interest loans
-if you live in a high risk area, you are required to buy it
- |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-average weather conditions of an area over a long period of time
-usually measured in a period of 30 years
-sum totall of meteorological elements that characterize the average and extreme condition of the atmosphere over a long period of time at any one place on earth's surface |
|
|
Term
| how do we know earth's past climate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what controls climate? (3) |
|
Definition
-the amount of solar radiation that reaches earth (slow change)
-amount of radiation lost back into space (slow to fast change)
-how heat from radiation is distributed (slow to fast) |
|
|
Term
| 4 factors that affect how much solar radiation reaches earth (2) |
|
Definition
-strength of sun
-Earth's orbit/orientation in terms of sun |
|
|
Term
| Suns strength has been... |
|
Definition
| varied throughout history (i.e. today, it's 30 percent stronger than it was at earth's beginning) |
|
|
Term
| The tilt has caused ________ and has ______ |
|
Definition
-heat changes on earth (i.e. seasons)
-changed over time! |
|
|
Term
| Takes _____ years for earth's axis to rotate from 21 to 24 degrees |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| every _____ years, the direction and angle of the Earth changes (this is called the "precession" of the Earth's orbit) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Solar radiation is biggest at _____ latitudes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| eccentricity (and its effect on climate) |
|
Definition
how elliptical the earth's orbit is
-the more oval shaped the earth's orbit, the more radiation permeates) |
|
|
Term
| Three big effects on climate bc of orbit |
|
Definition
1)summer insolation (how direct the summer sun is)
2) mix in changing ocean currents, atmospheric circulation, ice cover, and vegetation, and you have many small variations on top of this cyclical pattern
3). controls pulse of glaciations over last 2 myears |
|
|
Term
| the three factors of earth's orbit that effect climate |
|
Definition
1). stretch/eccentricity of orbit
2). tilt of orbit
3). precession of orbit ("wobble" of axis) |
|
|
Term
| 2 factors that effect the amount of radiation lost back into space |
|
Definition
1). reflectiveness of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. ice clouds)
2). greenhouse gases (absord re-radiated heat) |
|
|
Term
| greenhouse gases/effect (lecture definition) |
|
Definition
trap long-wave radiation
-similar to sun shining through car windows: the heat gets in, but doesn't escape |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-warm air from equator goes to the poles and cools in the process
-transports both heat and moisture (precipitation and temp are effected) |
|
|
Term
| 2 ways that heat from radiation is distributed |
|
Definition
1). ocean currents
2). atmosphere circulation |
|
|
Term
| factors external to climate that effect effect climate change (3) |
|
Definition
1). plate tectonics
2). Earth's orbit
3). sun's strength |
|
|
Term
| internal factors (influenced BY climate) that effect long term climate change (5) |
|
Definition
1). atmosphere changes
2). ocean changes
3). ice changes
4). vegetation changes
5). land surface changes |
|
|
Term
| Earth's climate has always been.... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what CAUSES climate to CHANGE? (6) |
|
Definition
-internal/external heat engines (sun and global warming)
2). plate tectonics
3). orbital variations
4). meteriote impacts
5). weathering
6). life! |
|
|
Term
| How does plate tectonics cause long term climate change? (4) |
|
Definition
1). supercontinentc cause less opportunities for water to flow around land (shape of ocean basins influences current patterns)
2). high topography (i.e. Himalayas) effect atmosphere
3). whether continents are oriented over poles or the equator
4). amount of CO2 released by mid ocean ridges varies over time |
|
|
Term
| How do CO2 levels in atmosphere change? |
|
Definition
1). outgassing from volcanoes
(avg. outgassing level=200 million metric tons)
2). change in the amount of CO2 consuming life (i.e. photosynthesis-dependent life forms)
3). sequestriation (aka taking CO2 in atmosphere and adding it into carbonate rocks)
4). production or consumption of CO2 in weathering reactions (i.e. hydrolisis, the breakdown of silicate rocks with carbonic acid) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| groundwater comes from precipitation that doesn't runoff/get evapotranspirated (evaporated into atmosphere or used up by plants) |
|
|
Term
| aquifer (and unconfined vs. confined) |
|
Definition
geologic body with high enough porocity and permeability to make a well feasible
-confined aquifer is sandwiched between permeable layers, while unconfined ones are usually close to the surface and therefore easy penetratable) |
|
|
Term
| pro and con of unconfined aquifers |
|
Definition
con= easily contaminated
con= close to the surface |
|
|
Term
| pro and con of confined aquifers |
|
Definition
pro= more "protected"/less contaminated water
con=harder to reach than unconfined aquifers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| point/zone at which water becomes saturated (there's a dry aquifier towards the surface, and a water table, or saturated aquifer, below it) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the equivalent of a water table for a confined aquifer |
|
|
Term
| water tables/potetiometric surfaces are __________ horizontal; they _______ to the Earth's surface |
|
Definition
-usually NOT horizontal
-they CONTOUR to the earth's surface (they are parallel to the slope of the land.... if the surface is a hill, the water table will slope downward just like the hill) |
|
|
Term
| water will always to to the area of..... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| YES! depending on the point of pressure (i.e. a heavy rainstorm in an empty lake would cause the water table to flow upwards and outwords) |
|
|
Term
| the permeability of a material determines.... |
|
Definition
| how fast groundwater will saturate an area |
|
|
Term
| pressure gradient also determines... |
|
Definition
| how fast groundwater will saturate an area |
|
|
Term
| it's possible for two aquifers to have the same ______ buty different _______ |
|
Definition
same porocities
different permeabilities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a body of permanent, year-round ice that flows under its own weight. |
|
|
Term
| Why should we study glaciers? (3) |
|
Definition
1). flowing ice significantly modifies landscape through erosion and deposition
2). common in temperate/polar latitudes, which are an important source of groundwater and construction materials
3). records of ice advance and retreat tell us about past climates |
|
|
Term
| Formation of glaciers? snow turns into ice in a similar way to sediment becoming sedimentary rock! it gets....and takes ........ to turn into a glacier |
|
Definition
-compacted/compressed and reduces air spaces to increase density
-many years to turn into a glacier |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1). valley glaciers
2). ice field
3). ice sheets/caps |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glaciers that are confined by the walls of valleys |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glaciers that cover high mountain plateaus rather than valley walls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-biggest glaciers; cover entire coutnries/continents (i.e. Greenland and Antarctica)
-have to be over 50,000 square kilometers |
|
|
Term
| 2 main regions for glacial distribution |
|
Definition
1). polar regions
2). mountain regions |
|
|
Term
| Glacial distribution is best in polar regions when... |
|
Definition
| cools summers happen; that way, there is little melting (and little precipitation in Antarctica) |
|
|
Term
| Glaciers can get distributed in mountain regions for two reasons: |
|
Definition
1). warm summers, but lots of snowfall (i.e Washington state cascades)
2). less precipitation, but higher elevations so its cooler all the time (i.e. Rocky Mountains) |
|
|
Term
| In order for glaciers to form, there must be at least as much _______ as there is ______ during one year. otherwise... |
|
Definition
-as much snowfall as snow melting (so they cancel out)
-otherwise, the glacier retreats |
|
|
Term
| 3 most important factors controlling glacial distribution |
|
Definition
1). temperature (which determines precpititation and amount of melting)
2). relationship of ice location
3). glacial length |
|
|
Term
| Ice is gained through.... (3) |
|
Definition
1). direct snowfall
2). windblown/carried snow
3). avalanches |
|
|
Term
| Ablation (and three types) |
|
Definition
-erosive process by which a glacier is reduced
1). melting
2). calving (cascading/breaking off)
3). sublimation (changing the solid glacier into a gas form) |
|
|
Term
| How often does ice move downslope? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The zone of ablation is always moving.... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Nowadays, the ___ of a glacier is much further back then it was before |
|
Definition
| toe (the point at which the glacier stops) |
|
|
Term
| Why does ice usually move downslope? (it's pretty obvious...) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glaciers are an example of what kind of solids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glaciers usually move at a ______ rate.... (what is the rate also?) |
|
Definition
| -slow rates ( mm's to m's/day) |
|
|
Term
| Glaciers are the fastest at ____ slopes and with _______ ice |
|
Definition
| steepest slopes, thickest ice |
|
|
Term
| ________ ice is usually more ductile than _______ ice |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ice can be both a ____ (type of movement) or a ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Crevasses what are they are how do they form) |
|
Definition
-cracks in ice that open up when different parts of the ice move at different rates
-tensions/differences in speed usually cause them (often are 10 meters in depth) |
|
|
Term
| Glacial erosion happens when a glacier slides and erodes the bed, either by: (2) |
|
Definition
1). abrasion (scraping a rock with "sandpaper")
2). plucking/quarrying (breaking off loose pieces of rock) |
|
|
Term
| glaciers are _____ than rivers at eroding land because they are _____ |
|
Definition
| better than rivers because they are heavier |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-usually leaves marks on the rocks (called striations) that can be used to determine the direction of the flow
2). produce a fine sediment called glacial flour (clay sized particles of ground up rock) |
|
|
Term
| glacial plucking usually happens when ice travels over... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| glaciers usually cause valleys to change from _____ shaped to ______ shaped |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tributaries that are left behind when claciers retreat (often can have waterfals that flow into the u shaped valley) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| circular valleys formed after glaciation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -sharp peaks/ridges caused by backawrds erosion |
|
|
Term
| Glacial deposition (and two common types) |
|
Definition
| -sediment produced by erosion deposited in a certain way (till or cement-like plasters) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glacial debris that is unlayered and poorly sorted |
|
|
Term
| cement-like glacial depositions form when... |
|
Definition
| they plaster under glaciers as they move or melt out of stagnant ice |
|
|
Term
| Glacials transport _____ types of sediment without much _____ |
|
Definition
| all types; not much sorting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glacial land form made up of till (when a glacier retreats, till can either be deposited at the toe of a glacier, or along the sides of a glacier/lateral with the movement) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| form at sides of glaciers/in the middle of the flow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| formed when two glaciers come together (the moraine in between them) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| patches of glacial sediment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "snakelike" ridges formed by glacial deposit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glacial depositions that form when clocks of ice get trapped under sediment and melt (i.e. the salt ponds at the national seashore in cape cod) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sand and gravel sediments that form braided streams |
|
|
Term
| Streamlined hills are usually formed because of.... |
|
Definition
| drumlins (and therefore, glaciers) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a 19th century Swiss paleontologist who observed French and Swiss landscapes and concluded that glaceris usted to be more extensive than they are in the present. People didn't like his debate bc they believe that the land was formed like this because of Noah's flood |
|
|
Term
| Erratics and striations are both present in _________ areas and _______ areas, proving that ________ are real. |
|
Definition
currently glaciated
currently unglaciated
ice ages are real. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ice sheet present in North American that now only covers Northern Canada, but used to stretch even as far as Massachussetts |
|
|
Term
| true or false: the weather was uniformly cold during the pleistocene |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the past 500,000 years have shown major _______ in glaciation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| period of warmth within an ice age |
|
|
Term
| Were the icehouse conditions during the Peistocene and Holocene eras common? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Jurrasic period is an example of _____ conditions |
|
Definition
| hothouse (an irregular constnat hotness) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| warm conditions that get gradually cooler; culminate into fluctuating ice sheets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
represent long periods of deposition
-preserve histories of local climate (temp and precipitiation), regional conditions (dust, salt from sea-spray indicative of windiness), global conditions (composition of atmosphere trapped in air bubbles) |
|
|
Term
| the two major ice cores are in: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| We are able to get the age of an ice core by counting it's distinct _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Smooshed layers in ice cores can be seperated by... (3) |
|
Definition
1). oxygen isotopes
2). argonic dating
3). volcanic ash presence
4). CO2 content in bubbles (high CO2=warmer times/interglaciations; low CO2=cold times/glaciations) |
|
|
Term
| 2 big geological resources/hydrocarbons: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Petroleum consists of ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1). Oil (all grades)
2). Natural gas (i.e. methane, propane, benzene) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1). asphalts (solid hydrocarbons)
2). crude oil (complex liquid mixture made of paraffin, aromatics, naphalene, etc.)
3). condensate (mix of light oils and natural gas, transitional)
4). natural gas (hydrocarbon gas) |
|
|
Term
| Thicker materials usually have __________ and more _____________ hydrocarbon molecules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Formation of hydrocarbons: 4 steps |
|
Definition
1). need to accumulate organic material in a low oxygen environment
2). breakdown of kerogen
3). migration
4). oil or gas accumulates in a trap |
|
|
Term
| 3 kinds of organic material that become hydrocarbons in low oxygen deposits |
|
Definition
1). terrestrial plants (have a lot of cellulose and ligning; break down to form coal, natural gas, but not oil)
2). Marine microalgae (much more hydrogen than carbon in their chemical formula, and the fact that they have a lot of lipids makes them turn into oil)
3). zooplankton (tiny marine critters that have more hydrogen than carbon, but bc they have fats and proteins, can still make natural gas and oil) |
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Term
| Kerogen (and its 5 types) |
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Definition
organic chemical compounds
1). lignin
2). cellulose
3). lipids (oils)
4). proteins
5). fats |
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Term
| catagenesis (what it is, how it works, and what's problematic about it) |
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Definition
the chemical process of turning kerogen into hydrocarbons
-involves heat (60-150 degrees Celcius) from burial (about 2-5 km below Earth's surface)
-kerogen breaks apart and reorganizes into new hydrocarbon molecules.
-VERY time sensitive, need to have just the right amount of heat at the right amount of time to be successful |
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Term
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Definition
-catagenesis gone wrong; too much heat (more than 150 degrees celcius); bury too deep or in an area with too much heat flow
-results in gas, not oil |
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Term
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Definition
-when the liquid and gas hydrocarbons "float" upwards
-this is possible bc they have seperated themselves from water, are low in density, more viscous than water but it still easily flows through cracks and pores up to the surface |
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Term
| Oil gas accumulates in large traps. How? |
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Definition
| 1). similar to aquifers... shale/salt pockets; impermeable; the oil/gas can't penetrate on it's own; need to drill wells to get it |
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Term
| Where do we have the VAST majority of oil in the world? |
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Definition
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Term
| Geologic time periods with rocks that have the most hydrocarbons/oils (95% of the world's stash!)(4) |
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Definition
1). Silurian
2). Upper Devonian
3). Pennsylvanian/Lower Permian
4). Upper Jurrassic |
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Term
| Why can't we make more oil?(2) |
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Definition
| 1)it takes hundreds of thousands of years to make oil (the sun needs to "cook" it)... we can't replicate it would take more energy then it would produce) |
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Term
| What are 2 other sources of hydrocarbons? |
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Definition
-oil sands (like in Alberta Canada, but they burn"really dirty"
2). Marcellus Shale (contains natural gas) |
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Term
| Marcellus Shale is full of.... and we can't reach it because.... |
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Definition
| possibly 500 trillion cubic feet of natural gas; can't reach it because the deposit is VERY far underground and is "tight" |
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Term
| Hyrdaulic fracturing/fracking (what it is, why we'd use it, and why it's contriversial) |
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Definition
-process that has been invented to reach the hard-to-obtain natural gas in the Marcellus Shale; involves pumping into the gas zone with high pressure carcinogenic fluid so that the rock fractures and they can pump out the gas.
-the fluids are made of chemicals like benzene, surfactants, hydrochloric acid, etc.)
-people concerned that these fluids might harm the enviroment or pollute the drinking water
-also, not many energy companies are interested in it bc natural gas is "cheap" compared to oil and they wouldn't make that much of a profit off of it |
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Term
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Definition
-considered an organic sed. rock (but has no minerals....)
-primarily carbon/hydrogen, trace amounts of nitrogen and sulfur
-made by the metamosphism of plants
-burn coal to heat water and produce electricity (we're not running out any time soon! we have tons!!!!) |
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Term
| Most coal deposits were deposisited during the __________ time period |
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Definition
| Carboniferous (360-290 mya) |
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Term
| Why was carboniferous the best time for coal to form? (2) |
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Definition
1). lots of swampy peat marshes at this time
2). rapid burial or anoxic conditions limit decay) |
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Term
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Definition
| parent material made of coal; wet, spongy, loose material |
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Term
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Definition
1). peat
2). lignite
3). Bituminous coal
4). Anthracite coal |
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Term
| Lignite (what it is, how much carbon is in it, what it looks like, and how well is produces heat) |
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Definition
-low-grade coal
-50-60 percent carbon
-soft, black or brown
-produces more heat than peat |
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Term
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Definition
-darker, harder, more dense than lignite,
-less water
-60-90 percent carbon; more heat value than lignite
bituminous coal is used often; but burns "dirty" because it produces sulfur/nitrogen in the air, and carbon dioxide) |
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Term
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Definition
-hard, shiny, relatively dense (compared to other grades of coal)
-probably has undergone low-grade metamorphism
-highest heat value; burns the cleanest and is therefore the most valuable form
- more than 90 percent carbon |
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Term
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Definition
| -alternantly fluctuating sea levels produce layers of coal deposits |
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Term
| 4 negative impacts of coal combustion and mining |
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Definition
1). air pollution
2. employee hazards
3). water pollution
4). landscape impacts |
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Term
| How does coal combustion cause air pollution? |
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Definition
-bc it produces more CO2 than any other fossil fuel; also has high nitrogen and sulfur content which produces acid rain; and mercury (which can poison food chain)
-can creat soot, which is uncombusted particles in the air |
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Term
| Clean Coal Technology: what's so special about it? how does it differ? |
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Definition
-same coal gets burned, but different power plants that clean the pollutant gases (nitrogen, sulfur, mercury) and captures CO2 (which is a very difficult process)
-the sequestration/capturing of the gases is very costly, and not well tested.... they think that pumping out the CO2 underground will keep it there but they aren't certain.
-also does not address the issue associated with mining |
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Term
| Landscape Damage from Coal Combustion/Mining... 3 examples |
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Definition
-mined areas can be expensive and difficult to reclaim
-mined slopes can be unstable/could result in a mass wasting process
-underground coal dires can burn uncontrollably for decades, virtually impossible to extinguish |
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Term
| How water pollution is effected by coal (3) |
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Definition
-acid mine dranage
-trace amounts of iron/pyrite/other sulfides get oxidized to form rust and sulfuric acid in water
-when water hits it, it gets nasty (toxic to fish, Clean Water Act of 1977 has reduced this) |
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Term
| How Human Health is effected by coal |
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Definition
-black lung disease from breathing coal dust
-has been improved by the federal coal mine health and safety act in 1969, but still happens in 2010 |
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Term
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Definition
-explosions (methane gas produced with coal ignites and explodes if it is not properly ventilated)
-coal dust is very flammable
-us laws regulaiting mine safety are weak, through recent coal mine disasters show that their not as bad as foreign nations like russia and china |
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Term
| mean global temperature has increase about ____ since 1880 |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-ideas some people put forwards a few years ago that the earth is actually cooling right now, based on the observation that in 1998 (and not 2008) was the hottest year on record
-didn't help that washington dc got hammered by snowstorms in 2009, or that climate in copenhagen was crazy cold... but it's still a myth |
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Term
| IPCC (intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) |
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Definition
-Fourth assesment report came out on 2007; next one comes out in 6 years
-hundrends of scientists and reviewers create reports for governments to review; it's non-political, so countries dont HAVE to listen to it, but it provides good suggestions |
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Term
| What was in the 2007 IPCC report? |
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Definition
-observed changes in climate and their effects
-causes of climate change
-projected climate change and its impacts
-adaptation and mitigation options
-the long term perspective |
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Term
| To actually PREDICT climate change, which is pretty difficult, we need to: |
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Definition
-accurately understand/model climate
-accurately predict changes to system (such as CO2, land use, etc.)
-it's hard! |
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Term
| climate models are made using... are are very complex |
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Definition
| supercomputers/they are very complex |
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Term
| the IPCC combine both _____ and ______ forces for more accurate data |
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Definition
| natural and anthropogenic |
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Term
| Negative Effects of glacial loss |
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Definition
-water source (feed year-round rivers in places like Himalayas)
-contribution to sea level rise
-loss of important climate archive
-albedo feedback (lose bright white surfaces and make the world warmer at accelerated rates; effects microclimates (i.e. mtns. with melting ice caps)
impact on tourism! (kilimanjaro anyone??) |
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Term
| Sea Level Rise is a problem in: |
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Definition
-Bangledesh
-Missisisspi Delta/Florida
-Netherlands |
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Term
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Definition
| -ice/methane mixutres that are buried in cold sediments on ocean floor; they are unstable and can melt and release methane if heated just a few degrees... (this is a wildcard theory) |
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Term
| Some "wildcard" feedbacks of climate that might harm earth: |
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Definition
-loss of sea ice/resulting albedo effect harms
-melting of Antartic permafrost releasing methane and CO2
-acidification of oceans, change in carbon storage/carbonate rocks |
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Term
| Mitigation techniques/proactive responses to climate changes, etc. (7) |
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Definition
-cap and tray to reduce CO2
-alternative energy
-car emission standards
-taxes on emissions
-CSS
-geotechnical
-home insulation, car pooling |
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Term
| Adaptation techniques/adaptive responses to climate changes, etc. (4) |
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Definition
-sea walls
-retreating from coastlines/stopping development
-change food sources/agrictultural techniques
-find ways to deal with diseases |
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