Term
| How did the fact that we were able to see Earth from space after the moon landing beneficial? |
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Definition
| View of earth from space led to increased awareness of the fragility of the earth and the need to better understand it |
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Term
| What is the goal of solid earth science? |
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Definition
| To understand the past, present and future behavior of the whole earth system and Use this understanding to maintain an environment in which the biosphere and human kind will continue to flourish. |
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Term
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Definition
- the earth system is a set of interacting subsystems
- how its parts and their interactions evolved, how they function today, ad how they might be excepted to function in both the near and distant future
- change in one component can propagate through the entire system |
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Term
| Earth Systems management / engineering |
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Definition
-migrate geological hazards (minimize effect)
-minimize and adjust to the effects of global and environmental change
-sustain sufficient supplies of natural resources |
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Term
| How can you test the hypothesis that humans have been managing/engineering the earth since the start of the human race? |
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Definition
-study tree rings
-ice cores from the ice sheets
-use of fire and the beginning of agriculture 100,000 years ago |
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Term
| How big is the human influence? |
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Definition
-Change in crops
-Population increase
-Increase in metal and energy use |
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Term
| How do you measure the amount moved by other natural processes? |
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Definition
-Measure the sediment carried by rivers to the sea
-Currently, worldwide total consumption of resources is 60x10^9 tones/year
-Total mass of sediment transported to the sea is 16x10^9 tones/year
-Humans moves 4 times as much as other natural processes |
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Term
| How do we measure the change in atmospheric carbon dioxide over time? |
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Definition
-We measure it directly day after day
-Measure the co2 in the air bubbles trapped in the ice sheets in Antartic and Greenland glaciers |
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Term
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Definition
Something which might cause harm to people
There are both natural and anthropogenic hazards
i.e. Water is both a hazard and a resource |
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Term
| Main Factors that control/ determine severity of a hazard |
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Definition
-Absolute amount (intensity) -> how far above or below the damage threshold
-Duration of the event -> how long was spent in hazard zone
-Rate of change -> how rapidly you enter the hazard zone |
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Term
| When does a hazard become a disaster of catastrophe? |
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Definition
The factors that decide that are:
Number of deaths
Property loss
Geographical scale
Number of injuries
Group versus individual
Reconstruction time
Societal reaction |
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Term
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Definition
The probability of an event occurring and the severity of the consequence if the hazard happens
Risk= PxS |
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Term
| How do we determine P x S? |
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Definition
-Empirical observations and scientific studies
-Social/ economical impact studies |
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Term
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Definition
-Understand the hazard in general
-Determine the risk for that hazard in a particular area (PxS) |
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Term
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Definition
-Determine ways to reduce P and S in the area
-Do a ‘cost’ benefit analysis- helps determine what you can ‘afford’ to do
-Implement the mitigation techniques decided upon from step 4 |
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Term
| What does it mean to understand the hazard with regards to an earthquake? |
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Definition
What causes the earthquake?
Where do earthquakes occur?
What energy do they release?
What exactly causes damage? |
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Term
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Definition
| Cause of an earthquake (strain builds up and then breaks, then plates move, the rigid part of the earth can store elastic energy, when it breaks elastic energy is released) |
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Term
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Definition
| A break/ crack in rocks along which there has been appreciable displacement |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| sub vertical / vertical motion |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Something that is useful to us |
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Term
| Where do earthquakes occur? (how do we locate them) |
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Definition
Focus: the point source of energy release on a fault
Epicenter: the point at the earths surface that is directly above the focus |
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Term
| How do you find the focus / epicenter? |
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Definition
| A seismometer, more specifically 3 seismometer locations to pinpoint a general area |
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Term
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Definition
| A mass at rest tends to stay at rest |
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Term
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Definition
| seismic energy waves radiate from the focus of an earthquake as body waves |
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Term
| What are the two kinds of surface wave motions and how do they move? |
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Definition
Rayleigh: circular
Love: horizontal, side to side |
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Term
| What are the two kinds of body wave motions and how do they move? |
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Definition
P-waves: push- pull (compression- rarefaction -> <-)
S-Waves: Shear (up and down) |
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Term
| How do we determine the velocity of seismic waves? |
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Definition
| Depends on elasticity / density |
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Term
| What depth do earthquakes occur at? |
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Definition
| < 700 km deep (the outer 10%) |
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Term
| How do we estimate the energy from a quake? |
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Definition
| Measure the intensity, based on observed damage |
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Term
| True or False, the closer you are to the quake, the greater the damage? |
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Definition
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Term
| True of False, the greater the magnitude of the quake, the less damage? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Structures on the fault will be disrupted by tearing motion |
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Term
| Material amplification effect |
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Definition
| when seismic waves slow down as they go into another material -> some energy is transferred into greater shaking |
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Term
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Definition
| This is generally the greatest threat to people and buildings |
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Term
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Definition
| smaller earthquakes that occur soon after the min shock, with epicenters in the same area as the main shock. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sand or clay soils that changes strength when shaken can flow like liquid |
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Term
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Definition
Seafloor earthquake
Underwater landslide
Collapse of the flank of a volcano into the sea
Submarine volcanic explosion
Impact of meteorite into the ocean |
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Term
| What are some human induced seismic hazards |
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Definition
-Damn construction
-Pumping water underground
-Mining |
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Term
| Assesing the Seismic Risk of Area |
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Definition
a) locate and determine nature of faults in the area
b) study history of earthquakes in the area
c) determine the geological/ geographical factors in the area
d) determine the human interactions with the potential hazard in the area |
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Term
| Determine the geological/ geographical relationship |
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Definition
1) map out the locations of rock, sand, soils, etc
- they have variable shaking characteristics
2) map out zones of sand and clay that are prone to liquefaction
3) map out location of cliffs/ hills that are at risk of landslides
4) map out tsunami hazard zones |
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Term
| Determine human interaction with the potential hazard in the area |
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Definition
-Exposure of people and property to the hazard (distribution of people and proximity to hazard zone)
-Vulnerability of people and property to the hazard (buildings and locations) |
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Term
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Definition
-Determine ways to reduce the P and S in the area
-Do a cost-benefit analysis-> helps determine what you can afford to do
-Implement the mitigation techniques decided upon from step 4 |
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Term
| How can we minimized tsunami damage? |
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Definition
-Early warning system: sensors on ocean floor that detect sudden changes in ocean depth
-Maintain natural shorelines: mangrove trees lessen impact of tsunami wave
-Limit population centers along shoreline
-Provide tsunami education/ training |
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Term
| Earthquake predictions: Long term vs Short term |
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Definition
Long term:
Determine recurrence intervals
Look for seismographs (these are high risk areas, the energy is not being released)
Short term
Difficult (impossible??) to pin-point precise times of upcoming earthquakes because earthquake behavior is chaotic
Short term prediction is not likely to work |
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Term
| Choosing appropriate building materials |
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Definition
Good: Wood and Steel (flexible)
Bad: Masonry, Adobe, Stucco (Rigid) |
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Term
| Resistant building design |
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Definition
| Simple is better than complex |
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Term
| What benefit comes out of constructing probability maps and earthquake hazard maps? |
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Definition
| It helps future planning, and shows us where areas prone to earthquakes are located |
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Term
| True or False, when a tsunami wave reaches shore, the wave slow, and the water piles up and can be as much as 60 meters high |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Wears down the earths surface |
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Term
| What is the importance of the moon and its tides? |
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Definition
We can trap tidal energy for human use
It has slowed down earths rotation rate
It stabilizes earths rotations about its axis ( prevents climate swings)
It has provided tidal flats/pools for life |
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Term
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Definition
| builds the earths surface |
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Term
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Definition
| summarizes the interaction of external and internal energy, rocks are in constant change from one type to another |
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Term
|
Definition
| formed when liquid magma cools and crystallizes |
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Term
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Definition
| formed when weathered “particles” get deposited and lithified |
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Term
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Definition
| formed when a pre-existing rock is changed under high temperature and pressure in the solid state |
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Term
|
Definition
Summarizes how internal energy is released from the earths interior
2 Questions:
-Where does this internal energy come from?
-How is it released to the surface? |
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Term
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Definition
Formation of solar system
-impact of planetesimals
-sinking of iron to form the core of earth
Decay of radioactive elements
-By 4,400 billion years ago, the earth became differentiated (iron core and lighter silicate mantle) |
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Term
| How does internal heat reach the surface? |
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Definition
| A combination of conduction( bumping together atoms) and convection (larger scale movement of hot material) |
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Term
| How does the mantel convect? |
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Definition
he mantle, although solid, convects plastically (elastico-plastic)
plastic behavior during slow stress application
elastic behavior during rapid stress application |
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Term
| What type of rock is the Oceanic Crust? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What type of rock is the Continental Crust? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Types of Plate Boundaries |
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Definition
Constructive (Divergent)
Destructive (Convergent)
Transform (Sliding) |
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Term
| Types of Destructive (Convergent) Plates |
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Definition
-trenches
-oceanic/continental
-continental/continental |
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Term
| Where do earthquakes occur? |
|
Definition
99% occur at plate margins
90% at depth less then 100km
10% at depths between 100 and 700km
they occur in the lithosphere-> rigid/brittle |
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Term
| Most dangerous type of earthquakes? |
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Definition
| Destructive (convergent) / Subductive |
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Term
|
Definition
Earthquakes that occur away from plate margins
Represent only about 1% of all earthquakes
Most are along former plate margins |
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Term
|
Definition
| a measure of ease with which a fluid flows. Low viscosity flows easily ( water, mafic magma), high viscosity doesn’t flow easily (tar, malasses, felsic magma) |
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Term
|
Definition
| low water content <1% -> mafic. High waster content >5% -> felsic |
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Term
|
Definition
(fissures, i.e cracks)
Where a dike reaches the surface |
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Term
| Dangers from fissure eruptions |
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Definition
| generally quite safe, but major eruptions can generate atmospheric effects from SO2 and CO2 gasses |
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Term
| What type of volcano is the most dangerous? Why? |
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Definition
| Stratovolcanoes, because Because their magma composition is felsic or intermediate, therefore the magma has both a high viscosity and high water content |
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Term
| Dangers of Stratovolcanoes |
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Definition
-Air fall tephra (bombs, pumice, ash)
-Ash clouds
-Ash flow (pyroclastic flow)
-Lahars (or debris flow)
-Tsunami
-Caldera collapse and super volcanoes |
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Term
| What is good about volcanoes? |
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Definition
Make continents
Their beauty; tourism
Geothermal energy
Agriculture: produces new fertile soil
Makes mineral/ metal ore deposits
Might have been an instrument in providing condition for early life |
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Term
|
Definition
| The downslope movement of solid earth materials under the influence of gravity |
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Term
| Triggering effects of mass wasting |
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Definition
| rainfall, earthquake, human action |
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Term
|
Definition
| soils with lower water content |
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Term
|
Definition
| soils with higher water content |
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Term
|
Definition
| Permanently frozen ground |
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Term
|
Definition
Solar fluctuation movement
A special type of creep that occurs in areas of permafrost where the active layer moves down slope, oozing down the hillside, responding to the suns active radiation, seen in soil, gravel, and bedrock |
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Term
| In rocks, potential failure planes are planes of weakness also known as discontinuities this includes: |
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Definition
Sedimentary bedding planes
Metamorphic banding
Faults
Joints |
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Term
| True or False? The Safety factor is not sensitive to a change in the angle of the potential failure pane |
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Definition
| False, a small change in it makes a big change the the safety factor need to carefully note and measure them |
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Term
| Human actions like __________ can trigger landslides |
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Definition
Urbanization
Tree cutting/ removal of vegetation
Dam construction
Global-climate change effects |
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Term
| How can water move through soil and solid rock? |
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Definition
| the material must have empty spaces that are connected |
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Term
|
Definition
| The amount of empty space |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A measure of the ease with which water can flow through a material ( how connected are the empty spaces) |
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Term
|
Definition
the boundary between the saturated and unsaturated zones
if water table is flat (horizontal) there is no lateral flow
if water table is not flat, water will flow laterally ( moves from where water is high to where is is lower) |
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Term
| To find water flow direction |
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Definition
| drill a bunch of wells and measure height of water table for each. Then on a map draw lines of equal water table height (you contour them) |
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Term
|
Definition
Water flows from higher to lower water-table levels
Flow is always at right angles to the lines of equal water height |
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Term
| Five reservoirs of earth systems |
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Definition
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere (water + ice)
Solid earth (rocks + soil)
Life (biota)
Stars and planets
These interact in complex ways |
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