Geographic Coordinate System

{Unprojected}

1. Unprojected Coordinated System
1. ellipsoid
2. longitude and latitude
3. geographic coordinate system
4. degrees, minutes, seconds
5. y - coordinated = latitude
1. north - south
2. go up every degree higher
6. x - coordinated = longitude
1. one degree longitude
2. reduces toward pole
3. range: 0 - 180 Degrees East or West

Geographic Coordinate System

{Projected}

1. flat, two-dimensional surface
2. lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions
3. sphere or spheroid
4. x,y coordinates on a grid, with the origin at the center of the grid
5.  two values that reference it to that central location
6. horizontal line in the center is called the x-axis
7. central vertical line is called the y-axis
8. Horizontal lines above the origin and vertical lines to the right of the origin have positive values
9. below or to the left have negative values 

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North Hemisphere

South Hemisphere

+ East Prime Meridian

- West Prime Meridian

Decimal Degrees

{2 ways}

1. Degrees, Minutes, Seconds (DMS)
1. 32^o    N13'        18"
2. Decimal Degrees (DD)
1. 32.221667^oN, 110.925^oW

Universal Transverse Mercator

{UTM}

1. Seperated into "zones"
2. zones start from equator seperated into North & South Hemisphere
3. zones start @ zero at left bottom corner = all values = positive
4. area of interest = crosses equator
5. Norther Zone = Northing at 0 m
6. globe subdivided narrow longitude zones 
7. grid construction on projection & used locate points
8. Transverse Mercator = very accurate = basis global coordinate system = UTM

Mercator Projection

1. conformal projection
2. angles & small shapes on globe project angles & shapes on map

State Plane Coordinate 

Measuring: foot unit

U.S. Divided = 120 zones

(States)

1. Transverse Mercator: N - S Projection (Wider)
1. narrow east/west
2. Lambert's Conformal Conic: E - W Projection (Wider)
1. narrow north/south

(world/global)

overlap between zones

remotely sensed image digital elevation models

can be seperated

maps larger regions (small scale)

fewer zones/projections cover bigger areas

1. divides earth = 60 zones = each 6^o longitude wide
2. begins zone 1 @ 180^o West -> East
3. negative = West longitude
4. positive = East

1. quantity
2. need: goemetry quantitative attribute
3. GIS stores & displays quantity
4. Determine: 
1. data
2. research
3. info
5. quantities per area unit of normalizing data to facilitate direct comparison between enumeration units of different size 

Dot Density Maps:

Advantage

• easily understand by reader 
• illustrates variation in density 
• original data is recoverable 
• more than one data may be illustrated 
• GIS allows cartographer change dot value and size combo

Dot Density Maps:

Disadvantage

• Perception not linear (reader cannot understand)
• GIS randomizes dots within enumeration units
• Larger ranges in data make it difficult to select single dot value of high and low density

arranged in enumeration areas

provide immediate picture

1 dot = some quantity data

do not represent actual data 

represents specific amount

NOT one - to - one ratio cuz positions are random

NOT too small - can't read

NOT too big - too crude

numerical value

represented by each dot

dot value w/ longer size

BEST constructed: small or medium scale

• around dot = terroritorial domain = dot polygons {do not appear on actual map}
• derived/ratio data is not map accurately
• represented some quantity to represent geography space

DO NOT mark actual spot = spatial proximity

must mark spot best represent like reference

• the smaller the enumeration, the bigger the relative accuracy 
• the smaller the enumeration - the greater the territorial domain

• choros - place
• plethein - to fill
• statistical or administrative areas
• map using shading to show value of density

1. 3D Histogram
2. Stepped statistical surface
3. Choropleth

Enumeration

{Choropleth}

• more enumeration = more details
• number of units related to scale
• types and sizes = scale & questions
• determine by data

Data Processing

{Choropleth}

calculate density or density measures

view data in table and graphs

helps cartographer understand

Data Classification

{Choropleth}

values should be associated with each color

units should be in the lowest class

units should be in the highest class

units should be distributed among the remaining classes

Equal Interval

{Choropleth}

• interval between classes
• low value 8.3 -> high value 2500
•  a lot of datas
• a lot of polygons
• good if want to make direct comparisons between choropleths maps

Quantile

{Choropleth}

displays a distribution so each classification group = equal number of observations/features

Visualize more variation where indicator values might clump together

Jenks Natural Breaks

{Choropleths}

minimizes variances within class by dividing classes in large breaks of data

different sized class but best to convey info of choropleth

classes determined by mean & deviations from mean

best of data displays a normal distribution

• modify legend value if necessary
• list enumeration units
• best to have multiples of 25 or 50 or 100
• try to change class values as little as possible

1. Data Types: 
1. need ratio scale not interval {no absolute zero}
2. raw or derived data
3. Ex: number of zombies
4. 2 types:
1. proportional - size = actual values
2. classes - size = classes of values

1. True Point Data
2. Conceptual Point Data

Data Types:

Advantages

interpretation

scaling

compact geometric form

Data Types:

Disadvantage

no zero value

inaccuracies in perception of symbol area/volume

hard to estimate

make map look cluttered

Calculate

{Pictoral Symbol}

calculate area

NOT HEIGHT

area should be scale proportionally

located @ geographic center of enumeration

located accurately at spot and value

amount of overlap measured

not too full or empty

find balance

recommends:

cut - out - dots = good

cones split in 3 groups

red sensitive

green sensitive

blue sensitive

rods provide achromatic sensation

color perceptions = brain

map reader:

visual acuity

brightness

color blindness

retina

120,000,000 rods

6,000,000

everybody sees same color & recognizes them

red & green = same colors = color blindness

Color on Maps

difficult/expensive

no standard terminology

cartography = color

Light source/ intensity of lighting

map surface - colors vary

cones{cones} = sensitive = blue, green, red = entire spectrum

1. Hue: color values
2. Saturation (Intensity): Brightness
3. Value: Lightness

HSV

hue (colors), saturation, value

also HSB (B = Brightness)

1. Hue: Colors of Spectrum

{Color Dimension}

• psychological experience of particular eletromagnics wavelength
• use less than 12 hues on map
• using different hues = qualitative difference
• Ex: red is different than yellow
• not red is twice better than yellow
• humans: 100's of hues

2. Value (Lightness)

{Color Dimension}

• lightness to darkness of hue
• chromatic (color) & achromatic (grey)
• humans = thousands hues
• qualitative too

3. Saturations (Intensity)

{Color Dimension}

chroma, purity, intensity

pure hue relative to grey

visual variable suggests qualitive

(0%) Neutral gray -> (100%) Maximum

Creating Colors on map

Process Systems

{Color Dimension: 2. Value}

1. Printing/Ink Jet
1. cyan to magenta + yellow = black
2. subtractive model (Primaries)
2. Computer Monitors
1. red + green + blue = white
2. additve model (Primaries)

1. Sequential
1. quantities: low to high
2. Diverging
1. mid - range data range one side light the other dark
3. Qualitative
1. nominal or categorical names

• colors background either light or dark
• yellow & green = unpleasant colors for cartographers
• small combo colors are difficult to see especially pastels

• ancillary elements
• title, legend, scale,
• explanatory text, directional,
• indicators, sources, locator map, etc.

• neatline
• borderline
• title
• figure
• ground
• inset
• place -name
• north arrow
• legend
• scale
• credits

Title

{Map Layout}

• what
• where
• when
• size = 2 -3 times bigger than largest
• subtitle: smaller than main title
• draws attention by dominant size, but be careful may draw too much attention
• (necessary)
• in caps

Legend

{Map Layout}

necessary

need to contain unclear symbols

key element of map reading

Map Scale

{Map Layout}

necessary

thematic map

without it, it's not a map

must be on every map

Inset Map or Locator Map

{Map Layout}

Date

{Map Layout}

Directional Indicator or North Arrow

{Map Layout}

helps tell direction of map

(not necessary)

Visual Hiearchy

{Map Layout}

established by location & size of map elements

color saturation or transparent can also use to credit hierarchy of map

centering = important

visual center slightly above actual center

visual center is 5% higher than geometric center

Balance

{Map Layout}

• weight + direction
• visual weight depends on location
• Ex: more things on right is heavier on right
• heavier elements: larger, darker, simpler, etc.
• maximize map(s) relative to titles, legends, etc.
• balance elements on page, avoid blank or cluttered areas
• align straight edges & use neat lines to enclose map elements
• sight lines
• help focus layout by using it as plotting location

Symetrical

{Map Layout}

traditional

conservative

simplicity

rule following

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Assymetrical

{Map Layout}

modernity

progressive look

complexity

creativity

[image]

focus the eyes on one color

stands than other

Ex: black block vs beige yellow block

{black makes yellow fade w/out}

{black then yellow stands out}

[image]

Golden Ratio

{Balance}

The shape turns into spiral like shell

[image]

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Neo - Geography

aka: Volunteered Geographic Information

Demographic geographic tools

Web 2.0

Craiglists/Arizona Daily Star

AJAX, Javascript APIS

Social Networking e.g. Facebook

Mashup e.g. Google My Map

• form of intelligence of collaboration & combo of source data
• google page rank
• ebay reputation
• amazon reviews

• more ppl use it the better the application and stays on longer
• service NOT application
• Google 2.0
• connects to users
• service runs on browsers
• design for hackability
• able to combine other sources after one source
• "mashup"
• let's anotated amend improve any map embedded in map

yahoo

CNN

msn

paypal

amazon

NY times

Youtube

google

amazon

craiglist

eBay

wikipedia

other websites & sources

1. add
2. save
3. browse
4. share

• internet based computing which large groups remote servers are networked so as to allow sharing of data - processing tasks, centralized data storage, & online access to computer service

aggregating anonymously produced quantificable data

there are 4 key qualities make a crowd smart:

1. diverse
1. bringing different pieces to the page
2. decentralized
1. no one at top is dictating crowd's answer
3. summarize people's opinions into one collective verdict
4. independent
1. pay attention to own info
2. not worry about what others think

• technical structures that support society such has roads, water supplies
• military sense
• Examples
• waste management
• communications
• energy
• transportation: roads, internet
• input & output
• grid: lines some connection

• hard or soft, human or machines
• families
• possible routes from one to another
• edge features, junction feature, connectivity
• Why it's important?
• GIS specialist model
• physical components & processes
• control, automotion, testing, stimulation
• example:
• transportation, utilities, communication

helps find best route

helps determine service areas

helps finding closest facility w/ travel directions

use network database

Who uses Network?

government

business people

transportation

1. origin - network
2. route
3. closest
4. service areas
5. route problems

1. Edge
2. Junctions
3. Turns

Edge Elements

attributes values

both directions of travel

digital direction of edge

1. connectivity
1. groups & policies
2. elevation fields
2. turns
1. spatially coincidence  with lines
2. turns does not affect connectivity only traversability
3. lines and points connect together

• connection between ppl
• graphs
• matrix
• network = graph
• vertex/junction (nodes, site)
• edge (link, bond)
• graph
• Example:
• ppl represent nodes (junctions)
• relationship = edges
• allows analysis use tools of mathematical graph theory

tree

line

circle

[image]

flow map

troops from 422,000 to Moscow

return 10,000 after war

details on temperature and where they cross the river

[image]

Social Network

{middle vs outermost}

middle = best social networking

outermost = least social networking

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• movement
• connect between geographic objects
• arrows 
• 2 - way = double arrows
• quality or quantative between places
• flow volume
• visual emphasis
• use hue, saturation, value
• differences

• arrows or no arrows
• direct flow maps
• undirected flow
• both directions
• impractical 
• generate easier
• actual routes = not portray origin  - destination maps sometimes desired

Qualitative

Types of Flow Maps

1. different types of objects
2. variations line type
3. thickness lines = quantity
4. proportional = symbols of flow
5. best data: raw data or ratio data

Quantitative

Type of Flow Map

flow of different qualities of objects

variations in line width (not color)

width may be proportional or range graded

1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative

Discrete Point

Discrete Areal Units

Discrete Linear Features

Discrete Point

Spatial Data Characteristics

Discrete Areal Units

Spatial Data Characteristics

aggregate values

countries, provinces

Discrete Linear Features

Spatial Data Characteristics

Radial

Line Scale

Legend Design

Radial

Direction & Pattern Of Flow

one source to multiple destinations

1 way flow quantity

Line Scale

Direction & Pattern of Flow

proportionally

width of widest flow lines

must not cover too much

smallest flow line to ensure differences of proportion & size

Legend Design

Direction & Pattern of Flow

True Point Data 

{Data Types}

Conceptual Point Data

{Data Types}