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| Genetic Principles derived from |
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viruses, bacteria, yeast, plants and animals
* there are similarities due to an evolutionary relationship
* There are differences due to divergence |
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| 4.5 to 5 billion years old |
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| Eukaryote diverge, 3.5 billion years ago (ribosmal RNA) |
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Eukaryotes
*endosymbiosis = 1.5 billion |
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as blue green algea
*endosymbist= 1.5 billion |
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Multiply by DNA replication and seperation of cell wall
- circular genome
- no neuclues
- no mitosis of meiosis
Ex: bacteria, blue-green algae
* most prominent form of life |
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- has nucleus
- linear chromosomes
- cell multiplication by mitosis
- meiosis occurs in life cycle
- fertilization or other type of gamete fusion
ex: yeast, fungi, plants, animals |
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meiosis reduces chromosome number
* intiligation increases a bromosome number
* mechanics of miosis are basis of genetic rations
* division/mitosis probitenate genetic combination of |
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| the haploid gamete-producing stage in the life cycle of plants; prominent and independent in some species but reduced or parasitic in others. |
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| the diploid sexual-spore-producing generation in the life cycle of plants-that is, the stage in which meiosis takes place. |
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| a specialized haploid cell that fuses with a gamete of the opposite sex or mating type to form a diploid zygote; in mammals, an egg or a sperm |
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| a cell formed by the fusion of an egg and a sperm; the unque diploid cell that will divide mitotically to create a differentiated diploid organism. |
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| one of the different forms of a gene that can exist at a single locus |
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the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, which carries information from one generation to the next; a segment of DNA composed of a transcribed region and a regulatory sequence that makes transcription possible.
the basic unit of inheritance |
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| two successive nuclear divisions (with corresponding cell divisions) that produce games (in animals) or sexual spores (in plants and fungi) that have one-half of the genetic material of the original cell. |
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| a type of nuclear division (occurring at cell division) that produces two daughter nuclei identical with the parent nucleus |
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| A cell having one chromosome set or an organism composed of such cells |
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| A cell having two chromosome sets or an individual organism having two chromosome sets in each of its cells. |
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(1) Cytologically, the separatoin of homologous structures
(2) The production of different average numbers of offspring by different genotypes in a population as a result of the different phenotypic properties of those genotypes |
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independent assortment
(Mendel's Second Law) |
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| unlinked or distantly linked segregating gene pairs assort independently at meiosis. |
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| The two strains of individual organism that constitute the start of a genetic breeding experiment; their progeny constitute that F1 generation. |
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| first filial generation (F1) |
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| The progeny individuals arising from a cross of two homozygous diploid lines. |
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| Second filial generation (F2) |
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| The progeny of a cross between two individuals from the F1 generation. |
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| The first filial generation , produced by crossing two parental lines. |
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| The second filial generation, produced by selfing or intercrossing the F1 generation. |
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| The probability that one or the other of two mutually exclusive events will occur is the sum of their individual probabilities. |
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| The probability of two independent events occurring simultaneously is the product of the individual probabilities |
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| An organism composed of a prokaryotic cell, such as a bacterium or a blue-green algae. |
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An organism having eukaryotic cells
- has nucleus |
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| An allele that expresses its phenotypic effect even when heterozygous with a recessive allele; thus, if A is a dominant over a, then A/A and A/a have the same phenotype |
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An allele whose phenotypic effects is not expressed in a heterozygote.
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The specific allelic composition of a cell- either of the entire cell or more commonly, of a certain gene or a set of genes
genetic constitution of each individual |
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(1) the form taken by some character ( or group of characters) in a specific individual. (2) The detectable outward manifestations of a specific genotype.
appearance of an organism as a result of the genotype |
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| Refers to the state of carrying a pair of identical allels at one locus |
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| a gene pair having different alleles in the two chromosome sets of the diploid individual-for example, A/a or A1/A2 |
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| A cross of an individual organism of unknown genotype or a heterozygote (or a multiple heterozygote) with a tester |
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a single-locus heterozygote of the type A/a
monohybrid cross : a cross between two individuals identically heterozygous at one gene pair- for example A/a x A/a |
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a cross between two individuals identically hetrozygous at two loci- for example,
A B/a b x A B/a b.
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| any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome |
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1. Trait occurs in every generation; at least on parent affected.
2. When on partent affected, about 1/2 of the grogeny affected.
3. the probability that an additional child will be affected is 1/2.
4. Unaffected individuals do not produce affected offsrpring.
5. Two affected parents can produce unaffected offspring. |
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1. Parents are usually unaffected i.e., trait tends to skip generations.
2. Approx. 1/4 of children in a family are affected.
3. the probability that an additional child will be affected is 1/4.
4. Traits result from matings of rlatives
5. Two affected parents can not have unaffected offspring. |
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| condition is when individuals of a species produce gametes of both sexes (most plants) |
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| homomorphic sex chromosome |
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| sex chromosomes- a pair of chromosomes like any other ( not cytologically distinct) but differ for the major sex determination gene. Fishes, amphibia, reptiles. |
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| heteromorphic sex chromosome |
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| the sex with homologous sex chromosome |
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| sex chromosomes - one of the homologues carrying the major sex determination gene become degenerate or otherwise cytologically distinct. |
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| xy, the y has only a few genes in common with x, so those genes on x are the only copy present |
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| the inheritance pattern of genes found on the X chromosome but not on the Y chromosome. |
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| The inheritance pattern of genes found on the Y chromosome but not on the X chromosome (rare) |
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| expressed in one sex or the other but the gene can be located anywhere in the genome. |
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| A situation in which a heterozygote shows a phenotype quantitatively (but not exactly) intermediate between the corresponding homozygote phenotypes (exact intermediacy means no dominance) |
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| heterozygote shows phenotype of both homozygotes. the term is applied to gene products on the molecular level because both alleles produce a product, which is nevertheless different e.g. blood groups |
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| refer to a series of alleles with different effects |
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| some alleles have phenotypic effect as a heterozygote, but exhibit a recessive lethality. In other words, the allele causes a dominant phenotype when heterozygous, but when homozygous, there is a recessive lethality. |
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| term applied to mutations that have mulitple effects such as no tail and lethality. Lethality is due to loss of necessary biochemical function or incorrect development. |
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| only some individuals of a genotype die-- lethality can be conditional or affected by environment. An example is fruit fly alcohol dehydrogenase ADH. If flies lack ADH, they are viable, unless they encounter alcohol they die. |
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| an allele of one gene eliminates the ability to recognize alternative phenotypes produced by a second gene. Labrador retrievers can be black or brown: B- black, b-brown. Another gene E/e does not a llow color deposition in coat. When homozygous recessive ee=golden retrievers whether BB, Bbn or bb at the other locus. |
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| refer to the situation in which mutations in different genes give the same phenotype. If cross them together, they have a normal phenotype. They are not alleles. They do not segregate from each other. In this situation, both gene are required for a particular phenotyple. (e.g., pigment gene in albinos). They give a 9:7 ratio in an F2 because the two genes are on different chromosomes and either homozygote gives them the same phenotype. |
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two genes either one of which can provide normal function. Consequently both must be mutant to produce phenotype. If they reside on different chromosomes then the F2 self or sib, there will be a 3:1 ratio for one gene and a 3:1 ratio for the other gene. therefore, there with be
1/4 x 1/4=1/16 mutant, which will produce a 15:1 ratio. Common in plants that are polyploids with multiple copies of the genome present. |
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the percentage of individuals of a genotype that show the phenotype associated with that genotype. On other words, in some cases not every individual with the mutation shows a phenotype that deviates from normal. |
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| the degree that a genotype is exhibited in the phenotype. A mutant phenotype can be expressed at different levels of severity. |
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| different genes on the same chromosome will not show independent assortment |
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