• The use of MO or MO products to alleviate plant diseases or damage.
• i.e. Ice-, an ice nuceation protein from MO that prevents frost damage introduced into plants.

• The use of MO to decrease pollutants in the enviroment.
• Biotechnology identifies genes that encode proteins that biodegrade pollutants

• A cloned gened recombines with a normal chromosomal gene by homologous recombination.

• A cloned gene recombines at another location on the genome by non-homologous recombination.

How is bacteria used to make transgenic plants?

• Agrobacterium tumefaciens has a Ti plasmid.
• This T-DNA is transferred and recombined in the plant chromosome.
• A cloned gene of interest can be inserted into the T-DNA and integrated into the platn DNA.

• Biolistic gene transfer - high velocity DNA coated microprojectiles.
• Microinjection - DNA injected microscopic needles
• Electroporation - use of electrical current to create pores in PM for DNA
• Protoplasts - plants that have their cell wall removed.

• Somatic cells
• The process of mammaliam cloning:
  • Remove mammary cell from adult female.
  • Extract nucleus from oocyte cell.
  • Fuse to diploid mammary cell
  • Zygote is implanted in uterus
  • Offspring is a clone

• The telomeres associated with aging were consistent with the age of the original somatic cell than the age of Dolly.
• Could lead to progressive shorter life spans.

1. They can divide
2. They can differentiate into one or more cell types.

• Differentiate into any cell type
• Pluripotent, multipotent, and unipotent progressively fewer cell type differentiation.

One gene is inactive but another gene with a similar function may compensate producing the same phenotypic effect.

• Using trangenic livestock to produce human product - protein
• i.e. Insert a cloned human gene next to milk-specifier promoter in cow. Protein will be expressed in milk.

• Individuals possess unique DNA sequences that are not identical
• Gel electrophoresis - arrangement is fingerprint

• DNA fragments that vary in size between individuals
• Found with tandemly repeated sequences (VNTRs).
• Part of the unique nature of the fingerprint.
• Microsatellites are even small fragments.

• Individual identification
• Relationship testing

• Liposomes - cloned genes associated with enzyme that is taken up by cell via endocytosis.
• Viral vector - viruses carry cloned gene into cell during infection.

• SCID (Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease)
• Adenosine deaminase (ADA) metabolizes purine - if defective leads to disease.
• Process:
  • Remove ADA-deficient lymphocytes
  • Infect cells with ADA gene retrovirus
  • Reinfuse lymphocytes into human

1. Modified adenoviruses are spray in lung that infect epithelial cells and supply normal CF gene.
2. Liposomes containing normal CF gene are spray into lungs and taken up by epithelial cells.