• Started in 1990 in New Mexico
• Funded by the Dept of Energy
• Aimed to decode all DNA in human chromosomes
• Coordinated by National Institute of Health
• Dr. Francis Collins and Dr. Craig Vetner
• Published in 2003 with over 3 billion neucleotides

• Morphological traits--physical appearance
• Physiological traits--function
• Behavioral traits--response to environment

• Transmission
• Population
• Molecular

Green Revolution

genetically modified foods (rice and wheat)

India food crisis

• short lifespan/ high number of offspring
• small genome/ small size

Ex. 

• E. Coli, mice, flies, rabbits, tobacco, bees, salmon, flatworms, corn, frogs, etc.

• Austrian Monk, studied peas
• 7 characteristics
• Theory of Inheritance -- 1865

3:1 ratio

Parents=homo

F1=hetero

F2=hetero/ homo 3:1

Alleles segregate and gametes recieve only one allele

1:1 ratio

Alleles of different genes separate independently

1:1:1:1=homo R x hetero

9:3:3:1=hetero x hetero

• State hypothesis and null hypothesis
• X²=(O-E)²/ E
• Determine DF (n-1)
• If greater, reject; if smaller, accept

• Multiplication rule -- two different events (and)
• Addition rule -- mutually exculsive events (or)
• n!/ w!x! * (p^wq^x)

Entire genome duplicated

multiple sets of monoploid number

more than two sets=polyploid

Only one or two chromosomes duplicated

uneven number of chromosomes

gain or loss of individual

Colchicine--inhibits spindle fiber formation

prevents chromosome split

creates polypolidy

Autoploidy -- spontaneous doubling, occurs in one species

Alloploidy -- hybridization of 2 species, doubles genome

• Increased cell size - lowers SA/V ratio
• Cells fail to divide - increase of further polyploidy
• Increases gene activity/ enzyme activity
• Increased ecological tolerence - pests, drought, etc

Some leeches, frogs, lizards, rats

Humans die ineutero

Sex chromosomes develope aneuploidy

Telomere -- top cap for protection

Centromere -- connects sister chromatid

Distal -- top

Proximal -- bottom

Metacentric, acrocentric, telocentric

• Lepotene (thin thread)
• Zygotene (paired threads)
• Synapsis (threads connect)
• Pachatene (thick thread) -- crossing over (chiasmata) -- bivalent pairs (tetrad)
• Diplotene (synapsed threads separate)

Identify chromosomes by:

centromere location

size

banding

stainig pattern

G-band -- giemsa

Q-band -- quinacrine hydrochloride

R-band -- reverse giesma

Terminal -- ends

Interstitial -- middle 

Results from breaking and rejoining of chromosomes

homozygous deletions are lethal

pseudodominance -- recessive trait shows

haploinsufficient -- genes must have two copies to function

Tandem -- ABCD -> ABCBCD

Reverse -- ABCD -> ABCCBD

Pericentric -- involves centromere

ABCD/EFG -> ABEF/CDG

Paracentric -- only on one arm

ABC/DEFG -> ABC/FEDG

exchange of segments of different chromosomes 

reciprocal -- equal on both

transposition -- only one gains exchange

X/Y chromosome

XX female -- homogametic

XY male -- heterogametic

XO grasshoppers

ZZ/ZW birds

1n/2n bees/ insects

XY plants

ZW butterflies

found in Y chromosome

male determination

can be found or inserted in females

allows for male function and anatomy

males develop from unfertilized eggs

pseudoarrhenotoky -- males develop from fertilized eggs but have paternal gene turned off

• Infection -- isopods infected withWolbacteria 
• Temperature -- 32c female / 28c males

type 1: single transition, high yield females (turtles)

type 2: two transitions, high yield females, mid yield males

type 3: single transition, hogh yield males (alligators)

• Limpets -- social behavior
• Platypus -- chromosome number/ horomones