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| branch of biology dealing with structure, function, pathology, and life history of cell |
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| Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri |
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| genes located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together |
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| during Prophase one a reciprocal exchange of homologous chromosome segments occurs. Leads to genetic recombination. Crossing over determines the distance between genes during mapping |
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| process by which parents with different genetic characters give rise to progeny such that the genes in which the parents differ are associated in new combinations |
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| Shows which genes are linked |
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| Linkage without crossing over |
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| 2 genes on a single pair of homologs do not exchange genetic information |
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| Linkage with Crossing Over |
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exchange between 2 nonsister cromatids
Crossover results in 2 new allelle combinations |
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condition on which 2 genes are so close to each other that no recombination occurs (rarely occurs)
Occurs when genes are close together and # of progeny are small |
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| Parental or Noncrossover Gametes |
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| contains no chromosomes that have underfone genetic recombination |
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| Recombinant or Crossover Gametes |
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| Crossover results in 2 new allelle combinations |
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| The frequency with which a crossover occurs in any linked genes is proportional to the distence they are from each other |
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| place on a homologous pair of chromosomes at which physical exchange is occuring |
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| referring to genes located on the X chromosome. female=homogametic male=heterogametic |
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| Morgan and Sturtevant's Relationship |
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| Sturtevant was Morgan's student |
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| 1)Genotype must be heterozygous at all loci 2)Genes studied must be expressed phenotypically in the offspring 3)must be large #'s of offspring |
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| Use Pedigree Analysis. Haldane and Smith used Lod Score Method 1st. Then George Barsky used Somatic Cell Hybridization. |
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| Somatic Cell Hybridization |
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| Technique used for assigning human genes to their respective chromosomes |
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| 2 cells in cultures are induced to fuse into single hybrid cell |
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| When heterokaryon are cultured and the nuclei fuse. The nucleus of a zygote that results from the fission of 2 gamete nuclei. |
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| method for determining whether or not 2 genes are on the same chromosome in somatic cells |
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| 4 characteristics for a molecule to serve as genetic material |
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| 1)Replication 2)Storage of Information 3)Expression of information 4)Variation by mutation-must be capable of change in chemical composition of DNA |
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| Large Polymers composed of amino acid subunits ina specific order determined by base sequence of nucleotides with polypeptide bonds |
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| James Watson and Frances Crick |
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wrote a paper in 1953 about physical and chemical sturcture of DNA.
Used Base composition studies by: Erwin Anargaff. Used x-ray diffraction studies by: Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins |
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| Quantified the nitrogenous bases, Purines, and Pyrimidines that were released. Double stranded DNA was made of 50% of purines and 50% pyrimidines |
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| X-Ray Diffraction Studies |
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| able to see shape of DNA by beaming x-rays through a dna molecule |
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| a linked chain of repeating subunits that form larger more complex molecules |
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| Consist of: 1) pentose Sugars 2)Nitrogenous Bases 3)Phophate Groups |
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| DNA or RNA. Nucleotides linked by covalent bonds. 5' - 3' phosphodiester bonds. Anti-parallel nature. |
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base pairs are .34 nanometers apart.
360 degree turn takes 10 base pairs per turn. 1,000s of hydrogen bond make the helix stable. Stores Genetic information. |
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expresses DNA
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA |
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| 3 modes of DNA Replication |
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| 1)Semiconservative Mode 2)Conservative Mode 3)Dispersive Mode |
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| DNA molecule unwinds into 2 strands. Each strand is a template |
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| New strand forms on each of 2 parents strands. parental strands reassociate and new strands associate |
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| each strand consists of old and new dna segments |
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| the y-shaped region of a chromosome asociated with the site of replication |
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| the complex of proteins including DNA polymerase that assembles at the bacterial replication fork to synthesize DNA |
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Discovered by Arthur Kornberg.
1)Removes Primers 2)Fills gaps left behind when primers are removed 3)Acts as an exonuclease and proofreads from 3' to 5" |
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| In nucleic acids, a short length of RNA or single stranded DNA that is necessary for the functioning of polymerase |
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| An enzyme that breaks down the bonds on nucleic acid molecules |
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| 1)Least information 2)Repairs DNA damaged by external forces 3)Activates a gene that may control the disruption of synthesis at the fork |
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| 1)Responsible for the enzyme polymerase and exonuclease activity 2)very complex 3)Forms the core enzyme 4)elongates polynucleotide chaints 5)proofreads 6)leads enzyme template 7)serves as a clamp loader 8)provides a sliding clamp structure and dimerizes the core complex |
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| enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA primer to initiate synthesis |
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| and enzyme that catalyzes the formation of an RNA ploynucleotide strand using the base sequence of a DNA molecule as a template |
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| Single-Stranded binding proteins |
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| stabalize opening process |
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| controlled by Topoisomerase. Twisting around own axis |
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| DNA is replication is continuous 5' to 3' toward the replication Fork |
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| DNA replication is discontinuous 5' to 3' from the replication fork |
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| Newly formed DNA is present in small fragments and contain RNA primers |
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| enzyme that forms covalent bonds between the 5' end of one polynucleotide chain and the 3' end of another polynucleotide chain |
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| the enzyme catalyzed assembly of an RNA molecule complementary to a strand of DNA |
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| When RNA polymerase binds to a promoter transcription is initiated. A specific nucleotide sequence to which RNA polymerase attaches to initiate transcription. Strong and Weak promoter |
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2 alpha subunits
1beta prime subunit
1 beta subunit
1 sigma subunit |
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| antisense - (not transcribed) |
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| Initiation(Transcription) |
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| the binding of RNA polymerase to a promoter site is the first step of gene transcription |
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| Elongation (Transcription) |
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| Starts with energy source(ATP and GTP). |
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| Contains RNA polymerase, DNA, and growing RNA transcript. Moves down the DNA double helix at a rate of 50 nucleotides/sec |
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| Termination (Transcription) |
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| stop sequences cause the formation of phosphodiester bonds to cease, the RNA-DNA hybrid within bubble to disassociate, RNA polymerase to release DNA, and the DNA within the bubble to rewind |
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| Causes RNA polymerase to come off of DNA |
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| occurs when information contained in the mRNA transcript is used to direct the sequence of amino acids during the synthesis of a polypeptide chain by ribosomes |
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| sequence of 3 nucleotides that codes for one amino acid |
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| 3 nucelotide sequence that codes with the codon |
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| Starts with the initiation codon on mRNA (AUG) |
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| mRNA, small ribosomal subunit, and tRNA |
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| Sites on large ribosomal subunits |
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| allows another amino-acid bearing tRNA molecule to attach, amino acids bind and the empty tRNA is moved to exit site and leaves |
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| a nonsence codon attaches (UAA, UGA, UAG) and stops elongation |
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| tRNA carries a specific amino acid accomplishes by activating enzymes called aminocyl-tRNA synthesis |
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