Clinical Psychologist

specialize in diagnosis and treatment of mental and behavorial disorders

(anxiety, phobias, and schizoprenia)

Counseling psychologists

• definition
• severity
• where?

help people with adjustment problems

(marital, social, behavorial)

less severe

nonmedical setting, usually acedemic

What percentage of psychologists in the US are clinical or counseling?

55%

Physiological Psychologists

other names?

what they study

names: biological or neuropsychologists

study relationship between physiological proccess and behavior.

study brain and central nervous system.

role of neurotransmitters and hormones

body chemistry, determines how physical and chemical processes affect behavior.

Experimental psychologist

use of experimental research methods.

conduct experiments (leanign, memory, sensation, perception, motivation, emotion, and others.)

brain and nervous system.(work overlaps with physiological)

work in lab.

how people develop (grow and change throughout lifespan)

may specialize in particular group or human devlopment.

Educational psychologist

speacialize in study of teaching and learning.

Behaviorism

John. B. Watson

confines itself to the study of behavior because behavior is observable & measurable, therefore objective and scientific.

What determines behavior?

primarily by the factors in the enviornment.

Who influenced behavorism?

Watson and B. F. Skinner

Humanistic Psychology

School of psychology that focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capactiy for growth, choice, and psychological help.

emphaize positive view

people are good posses free will.

capable of making conscious, rational choices.

Theory Carl Rogers developed

client-centered theory.

client or patient directs a discussion focussed on his or her own view of a problem rather than on therapist analysis.

Cognitive Psychology

cognitive think MENTAL PROCESS

What study is entailed in cognitive psychology?

mental processes such as memory, problem solving, reasoning, decision making, perception, language, and other forms.

How did cognitive psychology begin?

grew and developed partly in response to strict behavorism.

BEGAN with group of german scientists studying human perception.

Evolutionary Psychology

study?

what does it combine?

focuses on human behavior required for survival have adapted in the face of enviormental pressures over the long course of evolution.

combines forces of evolutionary biology, anthropology, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience.

Eclectic position

choosing a combination of approaches to explain a particular behavior.

Psychology

study of behavior and mental processes

Scientific Method

Orderly systmatic procedures researchers follow as they identify a reaseach problem, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions, and communicate their findings.

Theory

general principle or set of principles propsed to explain how a number of seperate facts are related

What do theories enable?

scientists to fit many seperate pieces of data into meaningful frameworks.

Replication

process of REPEATING a study with different participants and preferably a different investigator to verify findings.

Goals of Psychology

1. Desciribe

2. Explain

3. Predict

4. influence behavior and mental processes

G of P

Describe

behavior and mental proceses of interest as accurate as possible.

G of P

Explination

understanding of conditions which a given behavior or mental process occurs.

G of P

Prediction

researchers specify what will happen next.

G of P

influence

apply principle or change condition

to prevent unwanted occurances.

Basic Research

seek new knowledge and to explore and advance general scientific understanding.

Applied Research

conducted specifically for the purpose of solving practical problems and improving quality of life.

Naturalisitc oberservation

researchers observe and record behavior in its natural setting without attempting to control it.

sometimes only feasible way to study behavior

Limitations of naturalistic observation

- Must wait for events to occur.

- Cannot speed up or slow down process.

- observer bias

Laboratory Observation

method of studying behavior. involves observation that takes place not in its natural setting, but in a lab.

Case Study

single individual or small number of persons are studied in great depth, usually over a period of time.

SIGMUND FREUD USED THIS

cannot establish behavior in case study.

What groups of people is appropriate

when using case study?

uncommon psychological or physiological

disorders or brain injurers.

Survey Research

descriptive research method in which researchers use interviews and/or questionares to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people.

Population

entire group ofinterest to researchers.

Sample

a part of a population that is studied in order to reach conclusions about the entire population.

Representative sample

relfects population of interest.

includes important sibgroups in the same proportions as they are found in that population.

biased sample

doesnt relfect the larger population

Random Sample

list of all members of population of interest.

what affects surveys

truthfullness of responses

gender, age, race, ethnicity, religion, social class, accent.

Experimental Method

only research method that cant be used to indentify cause-effect relationships.

Hypothesis

a prediction about a cause-effect relationshop between two or more variables.

Variable

any condition or factor taht can be manipulated, controlled, or measured.

What was the experiment Alan Lang and his colleaques did?

96 male students, heavy social drinkings.

half given vodka half tonic

everyone didn't know what they had.

result of experiments: it was the expectation of drinknig alcohol, not the alcohol itself, that caused the students to be more aggressive.

Confounding variables

factors or conditions other than the independent variable that are not equivliant acorss grioups and that could cause differences amoung the groups with respect to the dependent variable.

Three sources of confounding variables.

1. selection bias

2. placebo effect

3. experimenter bias

Selection bias

occurs when participants are assigned to experimental or control groups in such a away that systenatic differences amoung the groups are present at the beginning of the experiment.

Random assignment

a process that consists of selecting participants by using a chance procedure.

Placebo effect

occurs when a particpant's response to a treatment is due to his or her expecations about the treatment rather than to the treatment itself.

attriburtd soley to the power of suggestion

Placebo 

an inert or harmless substance such as a sugar pill or an injection of saline solution.

Experimenter bias

occurs when researchers' preconceived notions or expectations to become a self-fullfilling prophecy and cause the researchers to find what they expect to find.

Double-blind technique

when neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants are getting the treatment and which are in the control group.

researchers who use the experimental method are able to exercise....

strict control over the setting.

more control =

more unnatural and contrived the research setting becomes.

What does REM aid?

Rem aids information processing, helping sift through experiences in order to organize and store in memory information that is relevant to them.

What are typical things that happen in REM rebound?

nightmares.

Sleep cycle

What do REM and NREM both have?

distinctive brain wave pattern

Stage One sleep

"light sleep"

irregular waves, some of which are alpha waves.

transition between waking and sleeping.

Transition from stage one to two sleep

spindles on eeg

light sleep to deeper sleep.

Sleep Spindles 

Brain waves characterized by alternating short periods of calm and flashes of intense activity.

appear in stage two

stage two

short periods of calm anf flashes of intense activity

much harder to awaken.

Stage two

much more difficult to awaken in stage two.

REM SLEEP

alternating short periods of calm and flashes of intense activity.

Transition from stage two to three

 as delta waves appear on the EEG at 20%, sleepers enter stage 3.

EEG

electroencephalogram

Stage three

slow-wave deep sleep.

NREM

Delta Waves

associtaed with stage 3 and 4 sleep.

slowest brain wave pattern.

How long does it take for brain activity to decrease and delta waves disspear in stage four

40 mins.

slow-wave sleep

deep sleep (stage 3 and 4)

Transition from 3 to 4 

delta waves are reached at more than 50%. then enter stage four

Stage four

deepest sleep, hard to waken.

delta waves reach 100%

 what happens at end of stage four?

sleeper goes back through stage 3 and stage 2

when does first rem period occur?

after second stage of 2

At end of first rem period..

unless people awaken after first sleep cycle...

how long do first two sleep cycles llast?

after second cycle how much stage four sleep do they get?

usually none.

after first two cycles what stages do people alternate between?

stage two and REM

with each cycle REM period gets longer or shorter?

longer

how long des the last REM period last?

30 to 40 mins.

How many sleep cycles do people have?

five sleep cycles (about 7 to 8 hours)

How much slow-wave sleep do sleepers get?

1 to 2 hours.

how much total rem sleep do sleepers get?

1 to 2 hours.

Consciousness

defined as everything of which we are aware at any given time--our thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions of the external enviornment

What did Sigmund Freud emphasize about the notion of unconscious thoughts?

Altered states of consciousness

changes in awareness produced by sleep, meditation, hypnosis, and drugs.

fluctuations in your energy level, moods, or effciency.

what time periods to circadian rhythms fluctuations from a high to a low point over a ______ period.

24 hour

Circadian Rhythms play a role in...

...life-sustaining processes in virtually all organisms.

What body functions follow circadian rhythms.

blood pressure, heart rate, appetite, secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes, sensory acuity, elimination, body's response to meds.

Circadian rhythms are important to what cycle

sleep/wakefullness cycle

normal human body temp 3 to 4 am?

97 - 97.5 degrees

high human body temp 6 to 8 pm?

98.6 degrees

what temp do people sleep best at?

lowest

when people are at their daily high temp they are?

most alert.

where is the biological clock located?

brain's  hypothalamus

SCN

suprachiasmatic nucleus

suprachiasmatic nucleus

pair of tiny brian structures each about the size of a pinhead, controls the timing of circadian rhythms.

what is responsible for the timing of circadian rhythms?

suprachiasmatic nucleus.

enviornmental cue

bright light, particulary sunlight.

photoreceptors

what is the function of the pineal gland?

secretes melatonin.

does not secrete in daylight.

what is the purpose of melatonin

induces sleep

ability to lower the activity in the nuerons in the SCN

Jet lag

when you fly somewhere but you feel like its a time where you were before. airflight attendents and pilots get this.

can cause memory deficits and may be permanent

what supplements help jet lag?

melatonin.

exposure to lights in the a.m. and avoiding bright lights in p.m. is also an effective method.

amount of sleep varies....

...person to person.

what age group has longest sleep time?

infants and young children.

Highest percent of age group that has REM and slow-wave sleep?

infants and children.

most consistant sleepers and wakers?

kids age 6 to puberty.

what age group does slow-wave sleep decrese?

30 yrs to 50 yrs

larks

early risers

owls

night people

what is the difference between larks and owls?

variations in circadian rhythms.

Restorative theory of sleep

holds that being awake produces wear and tear on the body and the brain, while sleep serves the function of restoring body and mind.

circadian rhythm theory of sleep

"evolutionary theory"

keep humans out of harm's way during the dark of night, possibly from becoming prey for some nocturnal predator.

urge to sleep depends on...

...how long a person has been awake and partly a function of the time of day.

sleep deprivation can cause...

...minor hallucinations

microsleeps.

microsleeps

2 to 3 second lapses from wakefulnes into sleep

sleep deprivation impairs..

..human functioning, mood, alertness, performances, and reduces the body's ability to wamr itself, can also neg affect immune system.

Manifest content

the content of the dream as recalled by the dreamer

latent content

underlying meaing of dream.

dreams express..

...dreamer's concerns rather than sexual impulses

activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming

suggests that dreams are simply the brain's attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep

dreams reflect

our experiences, remote memories, associations, drives, and fears.

Parasomnias

sleep disturbances in which behaviors physiological states that normally occur only in the waking state take place during sleep

Somnambulism

sleepwalking

occurs during a partial arousal from stage 4 sleep in which the sleeper does not come to full consciousness

sleep terrors.

happen during partial arousal from stage four sleep. begin with piercing scream, sleeper then springs up in a state of panic. their heart: 2 or more times the normal heartrate.

lasts 5 to 10 mins

what percent of kids have sleep terrors?

5%

what percent of adults have sleep terrors

1%

nightmares

frightening dreams that occur in REM sleep

remembered in vivid detail.

nightmares are caused from...

dramatic life experiences. more frequent at times of anxiety fevers and emotional upheaval.

anxiety nightmares

occur towards mornign when REM periods are longest.

Sleeptalking

"somniloquy"

can occur at any sleep stage. more frequent in children.

narcolepsy

incurable sleep disorder. charactorized bu excessive daytime sleepiness and uncontrollable atatcks of REM sleep.

last 10 to 20 mins

what is narcolepsy caused by?

abnormality in the part of the brain that regulates sleep, and it appears to have a strong genetic component.

sleep apnea

consists of periods during sleep when breathing stops, and the individual must awaken briefly in order to breathe.

symptoms: excessive daytime sleepiness, loud snoring, snorts, gasps, and choking noises.

people with sleep apnea can wake up?

800 times a night

severe sleep apnea leads to...

chronic high blood pressure, heart problems, and even death. may cause mild brain damage.

insomnia

sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep, by waking too early, or by sleep that is light, restless, or of poor quality.

transistant insomnia

temporary insomnia.

can last 3 weeks or less. results from jet leg, emotional highs, or lows, or breif illness or injury that intereferes with sleep.

When did Freud's theory of first become widely known?

when publicity surrounded the leopld and loeb trail

Adult behavior is influenced by...

early childhood emotion trauma.

freud's most enduring contribution to the field of psych.

variations in early childhood experiences...

contribute to differences amoung adults.

Personality

individual's characteristic paterns of bhaving, thinking, and feeling.

Psychoanalysis

refers not to only therapy for treating psychological disorders devised by sigmund freud, but also to the influential perosnality theory he proposed.

Psychoanalytic theory

unconscious forces shape human thought and behavior.

Three levels of awareness in consciousness.

1.  conscious

2.  preconscious

3.  unconscious

Conscious

consists of whatever we are aware of at any given moment. (thoughts, feelings, sensations, or memories.)

EGO

Preconscious

somewhat like long-term meory--containing all the memories, feelings, experiences, and perceptions that we are not consciously thinking about at the moment, but that may easily be brought to consciousness.

Unconscious

***contains all instincts (sexual and aggressive), wishes, and desires that have never been allowed to consciousness**

*primarly motivating force of human behavior*

*most important level*

holds memories that once were conscious but were so anxiety-provoking or unpleasant that we repressed (involuntarily removed from consciousness.)

Three systems of personality

**only concepts**

ID

EGO

SUPEREGO

ID relates to

unconscious mind

EGO relates to

conscious mind

SUPEREGO relates to

preconscious

ID

part of personality that is present at birth.

-life and death instincts-

-pleasure principle (feed me, change my diaper)-

-source of the libido-

**inhereited, primitive, inaccessible, unconscious**

id tries to seek pleasure and avoid pain, gain immediate gratification, source of the libido, the id is the psychic energy that fuels the entire personality, yet id can only wish, imagine, fantasize, and demand.

EGO

logical, rational, realistic part of the personality.

ego evolves from id and draws its energy from id. satisfys id's urges.

REALITY principle

determines approiate times, places, and objects for gratifications.

life instincts

are the sexual instincts and the biological urges such as hunger and thirst.

death instinct

accounts for the aggressive and destructive impulses

SUPEREGO

moral compent of personality is formed. (age 5 or 6)

CONSCIENCE

EGO IDEAL

at first the superego relfects only the parent's expectations of what is good and right.

superego judges not only behavior but throughts, feelings, and wishes.

Id's demands for pleasure are often in direct conflict with...

...the superego's desire for moral perfection.

Ego uses..

defense mechanisms. because the excessive demnds for id and the harsh judgments of superego.

defense mechanism

a technique used to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem.

overuse of defense mechanism causes...

adverse affect on mental health.

Repression

most used

removing painful or threatening memories, thoughts, or perceptions from consciousness and keeping them  in the unconscious. also prevents unconscious sexual and aggresive impulses from breaking into consciousness,

Freud believed in repression that...

...repressed thoughts lurk in the unconscious and cause psychological disorders in adults.

bringing the repressed thoughts back--PSYCHOANALYSIS

Projection

occurs when on attributes their own undesirable impulses, thoughts, personality traits, or behavior to others or when they minimize the undersirable in themselves and exaggerate it in others.

using a lot can distort perception of external world.

DENIAL

refusal to acknowldege consciously the existence of daner ot a threatening condition.

Rationalization

occurs when a person unconsciously suplpies a logical, rational, or socially aceptable reason rather than the real reason for an action or event.

can be used to justify past, present, or future behaviors or to soften the dissapintment associated with not attained a desire goal. (make exuses for justify mistakes)

Regression

a defense mechanism where they revert to bhavior that might have reduced anxiety at an earlier stage in development.

Reaction Formation

at work when peiople express exaggerated ideas and emotions that are the opposite of their disturbing, unconscious impulses and desires.

Sublimation.

people rechannel sexual or aggresive energy iunto pursuits or accomplishments that society considers acceptable or even praiseworthy.

 Displacement

occurs when a person substitues a less threating object of person for the original object of sexual or aggresive impulse.

Psychosexual stages

centers on a particular part of the body that provides pleasurable sensations (an erogenous zone) and around which a conflict arises.

fixation

if conflict is not resolved. 

a portion of the libido (psychic energy) that remains invested at that particular stage, leaving less energy to meet the challenges of future stages.

If a person is stuck on one of these stages to long or little....

they willnot move on to next or they may try to make up where they left off.

Oral fixation

an excessive preoccupation with oral activites such as eating, drinking, smoking, gum chewing, nail biting, even kissing.

difficulties at oral stage lead to...

...excessive dependence, optimism, and gullibility, extreeme pessimism, sarcasm, hostility, or aggression.

anal expulsive personality

cause by rebeling against parents.

may be sloppy, irresponsible, rebellious, hostile, destructive.

anal retentive personality

when people try to gain attention from rents

become stingy, stubbotn, rigid, excessivley neat and clean, ordlery, and precise.

Oedipus complex

occurs during phallic stage when "boys concentrate their sexual wishes upong the mother and devlop hostile impulses against their father as being a rival."

same for girls.

Failure to resolve conflicts of psychosexual stages...

...cause serious consequense for both boys and girls. tremendous guillt and anxiety, may be carried into adult hood, sexual problems. difficulty relating to memeboers of the opposite sex.

ORAL STAGE

(birth to one year)

MOUTH

oral gratification from succking, biting, eating.

Anal stage

(1 to 3 years)

anus

gratification from expelling and withholding feces.

phallic stage

(3 to 5 or 6 years)

genitals

curiosity, turbation.

Latency Stage

(5 or 6 years to puberty)

none part of the body

interest in school, hobbies, same sex friends

Genital stage

genitals

establishment of mature sexual relationships.

FIVE FACTOR THEORY

also known as big five theory. a trait theory that attempts to explain personality using five borad dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of personatlity traits.

EXTROVERSION

sociable, outgoing, talkative, assertive, puersuasive, deciseive, and active (EXTROVERT)

contrasts

withdrawn, quiet, passive, retiring, and reserved (INTROVERT)

NEUROTICISM

emotional instability. tend to experience negative emotions and to be moody, irritable, nervous and inclined to worry.

differiencitaes people wo are emotionally stable and thus calm, eventempered, easygoing and relaxed.

Conscientiousness

dimendsion differeintiates indiviudals who are dependable, organize, reliable, resoibisble, thorough, hardworking, and perservereing from those who are undependable, disorgnaized, imopulsieve, unreliable, careless, negligent, and lazy.

agreeableness

the dimension is composed of a collection of traits that range from compassion to antagonism towards others. a person high on agreeabless woudl be plesant person who is good -natured, warm, sympathetic, cooperative

low agreeableness is unfriendly, unpleasant, aggressive, argumentative, cold, and hostile.

opennes to expereince

contrasts individuals who seek out caired experiences and who are imagincative, intellectually curious, abnd broadd-minded with those who are concrete-mindeed and those who reconcrete-mindded and practicakl and whose interests are narrow.

inventory

a paper and pencil test with questions about an individuals thopughtrs, feelibngsm, and behaviors, which measures several dimensions of erposnality and can be scored according to a standard procedure.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

(MMPI) widely used

most heavily reseracrced personaluity test for diagnosing psychiatric problems and disorders

originaly intended to idenity tendencies toward various types of psychiatric disorders.

California Personality Inventory (CPI)

highly regarded personality test devloped especially for normal indivudals aged 13 and older.

not include any questions deisnged to reveal psychiatric illness.

CPI is used...

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

based on JUNG

(MBTI)

is another personality inventory that is useful for measuring noraml individual diffferences.

growing popular especially in business and educational settings.

Projective Test

peronality test consisting of inkblots, drawlings of ambigous human situtations, or incomplete sentences for which therea re no bobvious correct or incorrect responeses.

people respond by projecting inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materials.

Whp developed the Rorschach Inkblot Methiod

Swiss psychiatrsit Hermann Rorschach

he made by folding the paper with on it so suymmetrical patterns would result.

Rorscach Inkblot Method

consists of 10 inkblots, which the test taker is asked to describe and can be use to describe personality, make differential diagnoses, plan and evaluaate treatment, and predict behavior

Thematic Apperception Test

TAT

projective test consisting of drawings of ambigous human situations which the test taker describes and is thought to reveal inner feelings, conflicts, and motives, which are projected onto the test materials.

Observation and rating

(approach to personality assessment)

observation

interviews

rating scales

Inventories

Minnesota Multiphasic Persontality Inventroy (MMPI)

California Personality Inventory

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Projective tests

Rorschach Inkblot Method

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Sentence completion method

Three approaches to personality assesmnent

Observation and Rating

Projective

Inventory

Order of psychosexual stages of development

Oral

Anal

Phallic

Latency

Genital