-1765

-a direct tax imposed by the british parliament on the colonies of america

-tax on printed materials

-a series of acts passed in 1767 by the british parliament 

-attempt to raise income to the colonies, more effectively enforce people to comply with trade regulations, and to punish NY for ignoring the quatering act

-established that the british parliament could impose taxes on the colonies

-the colonies resisted the acts and prompted the occupation of boston by british troops in 1768 leading to the boston massacre in 1770 

-in an attempt to save the British East India Company in London, parliament imposed this act which allowed them to send the tea to north america duty-free, while the colonies still had to pay taxes

-led to the boston tea part in december 1773

-aka the intolerable acts

-laws passed by parliament in 1774

-four of the acts were issued in response to the boston tea party

-led to the creation of the First Continental Congress and ultimately the American Revolutionary War

-a form of warfare in which a small group of combatants such as armed civilians use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, to dominate a larger and less-mobile traditional army and then retreat almost immediately

-American colonists who remained loyal to the British King

-American Colonists that supported the revolution during the Revolutionary war

-September 3, 1783

-ended the American Revolutionary War

-was a French aristocrat and military officer born in France

-was a general in the American Revolutionary War, serving in the continental army under George Washington

-He proposed the meeting of the Estates-Generals during the fiscal crisis and presented a draft of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. 

-during the old regime, the nobility and clergy were given privileges and exemptions from taxes and other such things.

-this angered the third estate, especially the bourgeoise who were just as educated and wealthy, but had no political voice or privilege like the nobility did. 

-the abolition of these privileges was a key goal of the french revolution

-the french parliamentary body

-met for the first time since 1614 on May 5, 1789, because, during the french financial crisis there was no other group that would cooperate and fix the problems.  

-by calling the EG the government was virtually admitting that the consent of the nation was required to raise taxes, they couldn't do it without the help of the EG and needed to do it because of the financial crisis

-simply wanted to fix the financial issues, but it actually began the french revolution

-it consisted of representatives from the three estates of french society

-when the First estate decided to vote by order rather than head, the third estate created the national assembly

-louis politicizes france b/c the EG must elect deputies of the people so they become interested

-the EG collects the cahiers de doleances from the people, politicizing them further

-the clergy

bourgeoise

sans-culottes

peasants

-the upper class of the third estate

-educated and wealthy, but without the priveleges of nobility

-did not have political voice and wanted it 

-many were revolutionaries who resented privelege and monarchy and desired a constitutional monarchy or, ultimately, a republic

-wanted liberty

-LEFT

-did not want equality, just wanted equal opportunity and to eliminate privilege of nobility.  

-the revolution began as a small fiscal conflict between the nobility and king

-france was a rich nation with an impoverished government, the gov't was bankrupt

-louis XVI set out to reform french finances and resolve the economic crisis but they couldn't tax nobles because of their privileges so they had to tax the poor and the bourgeoise->resentment toward monarchy and nobility/privilege 

-Louis tried to tax the nobles but since they had local power in their provinces, parlements, they were able to veto that

-louis calls the EG in Jan 1789 hoping that the 1st and 3rd states would ally with him, hoping to override local parlements, but the clergy sides w/ nobility and since its vote by order they win

-louis is at the mercy of the nobility, all decisions must go through them

-the cahiers de doléances, statements of local grievances, were drafted throughout france during the elctions to the EG

-they advocated a regular constitutional government that would abolish the fiscal privileges of the church and nobility as the major way to regenerate the country. 

-were collected by the EG in 1789 when it was held

-at the opening of the EG, there was a division over whether to vote by head or by order. third estate, being larger, wanted to vote by head but it was customary to do by order.

-when the government didn't assume leadership at this opening the third estate was able to push its demands for voting by head which would then allow them to shape france in the way that they wanted

-changes within a framework of respect for authority of the king

-the first estate declared in favor of voting by order so on june 17 1789 the third estate voted to constitute itself a national assembly and decided to draw up a constitution

-new definition of the nation, eliminates the old regime

-declared popular sovereignty

-members of the 1st and 2nd estate joined b/c they held resentment against the king

-louis orders everyone to join finally after a majority already has

-after constituting themselves the national assembly, the third estate tried to meet but found their doors locked (louis' passive attempt to stop them) 

-they moved to a nearby tennis court and swore that they would continue to meet until they had produced a french constitution

-first steps of the french revolution 

-june 20, 1789

-July 14, 1789

-an urban uprising of commoners who had, somewhat randomly, decided to wage war on the rich 

-commoners push the revolution along

-louis raises the troop level in paris due to increased mob activity, so the people stormed the bastille, an armory, to get their own protection

-louis orders the troops to fix it but they refuse so he expells them from france (louis has lost control)

-the fall of the bastille became a popular symbol of triumph over despotism 

-the fall of the bastille and the kings capitulation to the demands of the third estate encouraged peasants to take matters into their own hands

-july 19 to august 3, peasant rebellions occured in five major areas of france

-^these revolts were a backdrop to the great fear, a vast panic that spread throughout france in july and august

-fear of invasion by foreign troops, a supposed aristocratic plot, etc encouraged citizens to form militias and permanent committees

-peasants go crazy and wage war on the nobles, burning any legal trace of the ancient regime in many cases

-on august 4, the national assembly abolished feudalism seeking to restore order in the provinces

-August 26, 1789

-the assembly adopted this, providing the ideological foundation for its actions and an educational device for the nation; basically explaining what they want and why they want it

-a charter of basic liberties which reflected the ideas of the major philosophes of the french enlightenment and also was inspired by american revolutionary documents

-"natural rights of man" etc

-proclaimed an end to noble privilege

-"equality of man" (but raised the question of women which was somewhat ignored)

-popular sovereignty

-the catholic church was an important pillar of the old regime and was therefore largely resented during the revolution

-July 1790

-the constitution said that both bishops and priests of the catholic church were to be elected by the people and paid by the state

-all clergy were required to swear an oath to the CCofC

-the pope forbade it (b/c he is supposed to be the only leader) so only half of them swore it, ultimately making the church an enemy of the revolution

-this also gave the counterrevolution a strong platform from which to build

-By September 1791 the national assembly had created a constitution that established a limited constitutional monarchy

-the king had some powers, but most were subject to review by the legislative assembly

-the LA had sovereignty and consisted of representatives chosen by an indirect system of election that preserved power in the hands of the "active" members of society, rather than passive 

-held its first session in october 1791 after king louis XVI had fled and been captured

-most representatives were men of property

-the king made an effort to work with them, but foreign pressures made his reign increasingly difficult.

-numbered around 4.3 million in 1790

-were those allowed to vote

-consisted of men over the age of 25 paying taxes equivalent to three days' unskilled labor

-did not elect members of the LA directly but could vote for electors (richer men)

-could not vote

-did not fit the qualifications

-was primarily the peasants and sans-culottes who could not pay high enough taxes to qualify

-all women

-those who were left behind in the moderate stage of the revolution

-by mid-1791, the revolution faced much opposition from those angered by the CCofC, from lower classes who were being hurt by rise in cost of living, and political clubs offering more radical solutions to the nation's problems 

-jacobins were the most famous of these clubs

-first emerged as a gathering of more radical deputies at the beginning of the revolution

-members often included the elite of their local societies but they also included artisans and tradespeople

-gradually became a very widespread network and strongly associated with the parisian center

-although the bourgeois politicians had maintained unity in their trust in the king, he decided to flee france in june 1791 but was captured at varennes and brought back to paris

-radicals called for him to be deposed

-the national assembly feared popular forces in paris calling for a republic so they claimed he'd been kidnapped

-with the discredited and disloyal monarch the new legislative assembly held its first session in october 1791

-some european countries feared the french example and the thought of the revolution spreading to their countries

-on august 27, 1791, emperor leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued this declaration of pillnitz

-it invited other european monarchs to join them in an alliance to limit the french revolution to france and threatened to invade france if they harmed the monarchy

-eueopean leaders were too suspicious of each other and did not follow through

-despite the warning of the declaration of pillnitz, france declared war on austria on april 20, 1792 

-everyone wanted war

-the LA began to split into the monarchists (right), girondins (center), and the mountain (left). 

-the monarchists wanted war in hopes that it would weaken the revolution whereas the jacobins (both the girondins and the mountain) hoped it would spur the revolution on

-In august 1792, radical parisian political groups declaring themselves an insurrectionary commune, organized a mob attack on the royal palace and legislative assembly

-they took the king captive and forced the LA to suspend the monarchy and call for a national convetion to decide the future form of government 

-chosen on the basis of universal male suffrage (poor people can vote so they vote for the more radical people)

-beginning of the more radical stage

-september 1792, they began sessions

-were called to draft a new constituion, but also acted as the sovereign ruling body of france

-socially the NC was dominated by lawyers, professionals and property owners, and also artisans

-almost all were intensely distrustful of the king

-the conventions first major step was to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic

-As the french revolution entered a more radical stage following the forced creation of the national convention, the power passed from the assembly to the new Paris Commune

-it was composed of many who proudly called themselves the sans-culottes (ordinary patriots without fine clothes). 

-before the NC met, the PC dominated the political scene

-led by Georges Danton, the sans-culottes sought revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted the popular will

-favored radical change and put constant pressure on the NC, pushing it to ever more radical positions in 1792/93 

-the commune organized a demonstration that forced the arrest of leading girondins and left the mountain in control of the NC. 

^ led to a full-blown counterrevolutionary appeal. 

^Lyons and Marseilles began to secede favoring a descentralized republic

-made up the Legislative assembly

-ordinary patriots without fine clothes

-urban poor, in the cities

-les miserables

-an important faction of the National Convention after it split due to disagreement over the fate of the king

-represented primarily the provinces

-came to fear the radical mobs in paris and were disposed to keep the king alive as a hedge against future eventualities

-an important faction of the National Convention after it split due to disagreement over the fate of the king

-represented the interests of the city of paris and owed much of its strength to the radical and popular elements in the city

-often middle class members

-they won in 1793 when the NC found the king guilty of treason and sentenced him to death

-January 21, 1793 the king was executed; old regime is completely destroyed

-mass conscription

-nation at arms

-in 1793 a lot was going on: Lyons and Marseilles threatened to secede, foreign countries began to threaten to invade France and destroy the revolution because of the execution of the King, so the French army was very overextended

-to meet these crises, the NC tried to curb anarchy and counterrevolution at home while attempting to win the war by mobilizing people

-to administer the government meanwhile, the NC gave power to an executive committee known as the Committee of Public Safety 

-dominated initially by Danton

-maintained stability as pretty much the same leaders stayed in power for twelve years so that the country could deal with the domestic and foreign crises

-decreed a universal mobilization of the nation on august 23, 1793 creating the Republic's army, a nation in arms, which was the largest europe had ever seen at that point

-To meet the domestic crisis, the NC and CofPS established the reign of terror

-revolutionary courts were organized to protect the republic from its internal enemies

-victims included royalists and former revolutionary girondins (supported the king), and also many peasants

-the victims were people who had opposed the radical activities of the sans-culottes

-the majority of the executions took place where there had been open rebellion against the authority of the NC, such as in Lyons and Marseilles

-SANS-CULOTTES ARE MURDERING

-french government at this time was led by a group of twelve men who ordered the execution of people as national enemies

-along with the terror, the committee of public safety took other steps both to control france and to create a new republican order and new republican citizens

-the committee was sending representatives on mission as agents of the central government to all departments to explain the war emergency measures and to implement the laws dealing with the wartime emergency

-instituted wealth redistribution and price controls, but these weren't regulated very effectively by the government

-1758-1794

-one of the most important members of the Committee of Public Safety/NC

-a member of the EG

-became obsessed with purifying the body politic of all the corrupt so even once the reign of terror was no longer really necessary, he continued to encourage mass executions of rebels. 

-in its attempt to create a new order, the NC also pursued a policy of de-christianization

-notre-dame was designated the Temple of Reason and in November of 1793 a public ceremony dedicated to the worship of reason was held there

-saint was removed from street names

-priests were encouraged to marry

-this actually created more enemies to the revolution than friends because france was still overwhelmingly catholic

-new republican calendar replaced the old one, new one was based on seasons and days were numbered from September 22, 1792 the day the French Republic was proclaimed (when the NC began its sessions)

-lliberty, equality and fraternity

-virtue, intelligence, labor, opinion, rewards

-Olympe de Gouges (the pen name used by Marie Gouze) was a butcher's daughter who wrote plays and pamphlets.

-she argued that the Declaration of the Rights of Mana nd the Citizen did not apply to women and composed her own Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in 1791.  

-the National Assembly ignored her demands that women should have all the same rights as men

-the national convention, eager to destroy Robespierre before he destroyed them, gathered enough votes to condemn him and he was executed on july 29, 1794

-his execution, along with the terror itself, inspired the thermidorean reaction

-a shift back to the political right in response to republicanism/the radical stage of the revolution

-churches were allowed to reopen for public worship

-economic regulation was dropped in favor of laissez-faire policies

-new constitution was written in august 1795 that reflected this more conservative republicanism or a desire for a stability that did not sacrfice the ideals of 1789.  

-the people were tired and in dire need of stability->napoleon

-why?

success in war

decreased sense of crisis (and need for terror)

execution of Robespierre

people don't like the equality, they want liberty

-maintains a republic

-maintains the bourgeois interests

-to avoid the dangers of another single legislative assembly, the constitution of 1795 established a national legislative assembly consisting of two chambers

-a lower house, the Council of 500 

-an upper house, the Council of Elders

-the executive authority, the Directory, consisted of five directors elected by the Council of Elders from a list presented by the Council of 500

-a chamber of the national legislative assembly

-lower house

-function was to initiate legislation

-upper house

-chamber of the national legislative assembly

-250 members composed of married or widowed members over age forty

-accepted or rejected the proposed laws

-the executive authority of the national legislative assembly

-consisted of five directors elected by the council of elders from a list presented by the council of 500

-was highly unpopular, so it needed to rely on the military for power

-republicans/peasants/sans-culottes (JACOBINS) hated it because their voice was yet again hidden

-nobles/monarchists hated it because they wanted a monarchy

-battered by the left and right, unable to find a definitive solution to the country's economic problems, and still carrying on the wars left form the CofPS, the directory largely relied on military which led to a coup d'état

-the government of france b/w the fall of the directory in 1799 and the start of the napoleonic empire in 1804

-a bicameral legislative assembly elected indirectly to reduce the role of elections

-executive power was vested in the hands of three consuls with Napoleon as the first consul and ultimately consul for life (1802)

-Napoleon essentially directly controlled the entire executive authority of government

-1804 Napoleon crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I, returning France to monarchy and ending the consulate

-stabilized the regime and provided a permanence not possible in the consulate

-in 1799, Napoleon participated in the coup d'etat which ultimately led to his virtual dictatorship of france

-the coup created a new form of the republic which was proclaimed with a constitution that established a bicameral legislative assembly (the consulate). 

-Napoleon dominated both French and european history from 1799 (coup d'etat) to 1815 (waterloo).  

-Napoleon rose through the ranks of the military, gaining support and power, until he ultimately essentially ended the revolution and returned france to a monarchy, practically a dictatorship

-the people needed him, they were willing to trade liberty for despotism because liberty was causing them pain

-napoleon was a balance of the old regime and the revolution (people didn't want a bourbon b/c they were entierly ancient regime)

-nap was conscious of popular opinion; he selected a priveleged few to help him govern, but he chose them. otherwise, it was a meritocracy where people get to where they are by merit. 

-Napoleon also spread revolutionary ideas throughout europe

-the French Civil Code, the most important of seven codes that napoleon put together of laws

-the code forbade priveleges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion (regaining the Catholic Church as a friend in the Concordat with the Pope, but not reestablishing it as the state religion), and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified. 

-abolished surfdom and feudalism

-clearly reflected the revolutionary aspirations for a uniform legal system, legal equality, and protection of property and individuals. 

-March, 1802

-Napoleon sought peace from the wars the france was continually fighting

-left france with new frontiers and a number of client territories from the north sea to the adriatic

-the peace did not last b/c the british and french both regarded it as temporary and had little intention of adhering to its terms

-1792-1797

-first major effort of multiple european monarchies to contain revolutionary france

-following the declaration of pillnitz france declared war on austria on 20 april, 1792

-also received the brunswick manifesto around here somewhere

-when napoleon became consul in 1799, france was at war with the second european coalition of russia, great britain, and austria

-napoleon realized the need for a pause here so he sought for peace through the peace of amiens in 1802

-1803

-war was renewed with britain following the peace of amiens, which was soon joined by austria and russia

-Napoleon's Grand Army had defeated the Continental members of the coalition, giving him the opportunity to create a new european order

-composed of three major parts

1)the french empire

-inner core of the grand empire

-consisted of an enlarged france 

2)a series of dependent states

3)allied states

-although the internal structure of the grand empire varied outside its inner core, napoleon considered himself the leader of the whole

-in the inner core and dependent states napoleon tried to destroy the old order, eliminating privilege

-collapsed because of the survival of great britain and the force of nationalism

-part of the three sections of Napoleon's Grand Empire

-included spain, the netherlands, the kingdom of italy, the swiss republic, the grand duchy of warsaw, and the confederation of the rhine

-those defeated by napoleon and forced to join his struggle against britain

-included prussia, austria, and russia

-Napoleon's grand empire was threatened by the power of britain which largely stemmed from their naval superiority

-napoleon thought of invading england, but could not overcome the british navy's decisive defeat of a combined french-spanish fleet at trafalgar in 1805

-led him to turn to the continental system

-Napoleon turned to this in an attempt to defeat Britain after his loss at trafalgar

-put into effect b/w 1806 and 1807

-attempted to prevent british goods from reaching the european continent in order to weaken britain economically and destroy its capacity to wage war

-failed; allied states resented the tough french economic hegemony so they allowed inadvertently for the british to collaborate, ultimately improving british overseas exports

-Napoleon tried to invade russia in 1812 but got very much destroyed by their army

-he couldn't let russians challenge the continental system unopposed because others would follow suit, so he felt the need to invade despite the unlikelihood of success

-Napoleon was ultimately defeated in april, 1814

-he was left to rule the island of elba while the bourbon monarchy was restored to france through louis XVIII, brother of louis XVI

-XVIII had little support so napoleon slipped back into paris on march 20, 1815

-Napoleon, back in power, moved to attack allied forces at waterloo on june 18, 1815

-the combined british and prussian army under the duke of wellington destroyed him and his army

-napoleon was then exiled to st. helena

-the moderate phase of the revolution

-bourgeoise asked for it

-equal opportunity, but not equality.  there are winners and losers, so some people still come out on top and others on bottom, but it simply eliminates unfair privileges of nobles and allows everyone to equally achieve what they can on their own merit, however much success that may yield. 

-radical phase of the revolution

-sans-culottes wanted it during the reign of terror because they had been left out of the moderate phase essentially

-rather than just liberty to get where you want, equality means setting everyone back to zero.

-wealth redistribution, de-christianization etc were results of attemts at equality

-this phase largely angered the people of france who were not radicals because they lacked stability and tradition, it was perhaps equal but seemed unfair. ->civil war etc