- a spherical or ovid organelle

- contain its own genetic material

* 37 genes of DNA

* genes from your mother

- converts for to ATP

- breaks down fatty acids to acetyl-CoA

- glycolysis (anerobic)

*occurs in the cytoplasm

- oxidative phosphorylation (aerobic)

*occurs in inner mito. membrane

- Cytochrome C is mobile in the intermembrane space and binds to caspase triggering apoptosis

- cristae is covered with globular units of ATP synthase

- contain ATP transporters that pump ATP through membrane to cytosol

- porins is a transmembrane protein found in the outer membrane and always open

- prevent space from being acidic

-note: iron pores are only found in bacterial membrane

- a biphophatidylglycerol

- A "double" phospholipid that contains 4 fatty acid taild

- found in the inner mitochon. membrane

- allow membrane to withstand stress from the proton motive force

- organelle that contain digestive enzymes for cell degradation

- most active at low pH

- degrades membrane-bound vesicles

- degrades proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, DNA, RNA

- not an organelle and not membrane bound

- degrades damaged proteins via proteolysis a rxn that breaks peptide bonds

- proteins have to be tagged with ubiquitin

- its found in cytoplasm & nucleoplasm

1. ATP driven proton pump for low pH

2. glycoprotein coat on inner surface to protect itself against its own enzymes

3. Transporter channel

-transports degraded products out of lysosome via facilitated diffusion, active transport & co-transporter

- cell eating

- vesicles coming from phagocytosis @ plasma membrane 

- a phagosome

- cell drinking

- vesicles coming from endocytosis @ plasma membrane

- early endosome

- cell degrades its own organells

ex/ mitochondria exists for 10 days before being degraded

- the process of destruction is an autophagosome 

- or cell cannibalizing itself

-lysosomal storage disease

-caused by an accumulation of degraded metabolites

-due to an absence of hexosaminidase A that breaks down glycolipids 

-organelle that uses molecular O2 to oxidize organic molecules

-produces and degrades hydrogen peroxide

-single membrane/no DNA

-mostly found in hepatocytes

-contain major enzyme catalase

- gets rid of body toxic substances

- detoxify phenols, formic acid, formaldehyde, & alcohol

- converts fatty acids to acetyl-CoA via B-oxidation

- H2O2 is used to break down substances via castalase 

- H2O2 converts cholesterol into bile acids

-

- found in the peroxisome 

- name of a synthesized phospholipid that is used to make myelin

* thats why peroxisomal disorders lead to neurological diseases

1. De Novo Formation: when cell needs to make lots of peroxisomes rapidly

2. Fission: pre-existing peroxisome grows & split into peroxisomes

- A peroxisome disease

- A defect on importing proteins

- You have a empty peroxisome

- Leads to incomplete myelination of neurons & nervous system defects

**note**

-peroxisome are not found in neural cells

- a prominent membrane bound organelle containing DNA

- DNA + Histones = nucleosome = chromosome

-nucleosome is the basic unit of DNA packing

Chromatin = provides stability

Nuclear Lamina = provides mechanical support, controls disassembly of nuclear envelope @ mitosis

- composed of intermediate filaments 

rRNA

(where is it made, transcribed)

- makes new ribosomes

- made in the nucleus

- transcribed in the nucleolus

- smallest unit or ribosome

mRNA

(where is it made, transcribed)

- codes for protein

- made in the nucleus

- transcribed in the nucleus via euchromatin genes

tRNA

(where is it made, transcribed)

- links to an amino acid during translation

- made in the nucleus 

- transcribed in the nucleus via euchromatic genes

- highly condensed

- transcriptionally inactive chromatin (dart spots)

- genes are not transcribed

- known as junk DNA

- much less condensed

- transcriptionally active chromatin (light spots)

- where ribosomes are made

- its dark because it contains nascent ribosomes  in the process of rRNA assemble NOT due to heterochromatin 

- human karyotype make by a banding technique

- 46 total

- 22 chromosomes + 2 sex chromosomes 

- contains

-telemere (protect from degradation)

-replication origin

-centromere (binds to kinetochores)

- where macromolecules enter the nucleus

- via 2 diffusion

- free diffusion: ions, ATP, unfolded proteins

- active transport: of folded proteins

- Signal: nuclear localization signal (NLS)

- contain basic amino acids

- has an import carrier called importins

- importins bind onto NLS in cytoplasm & carries it through NPC to release cargo

- cargo binding is regulated by a small GTPase called Ran (ras-related nuclear protein)

- Signal: Nuclear export signal (NES)

- contain hydrophobic amino acids

- has the export carrier called exportins

- exportin binds to NES in nucleus, transports it through NPC & release cargo in cytoplasm

- cargo binding regulated by a small GTPase called Ran (ras-related nuclear protein)

Because there is an enormous amount of proteins devoted to make ribosomes therefore it requires a large of cellular energy

**Note: mRNA has a tight relationship b/w splicing & its export: if you inhibit splicing you inhibit export