the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth.

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nuture.

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Aka the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals.

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1.

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

an experiemental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

the group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent varible.

the group in an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review.

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. 

(Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

a neural impluse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

the level of stimulations required to trigger a neural impulse.

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the reveiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

"morphine within" -natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central Nervous System

(CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.

neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

central nervous system nerons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress.

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

Electroencephalogram

(EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

PET 

(position emission tomography)

Scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI

(magnetic resonance imaging) 

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.

fMRI

(functional magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sesory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordination movement output and balance.

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

two lima beansized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center.

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, each receiving information from the opposite visual field.

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

a condition in which the brain's two hemispheres are isolated by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.