Term
| What are the classes of nutrients? |
|
Definition
Water
Protein
Carbohydrate
Fat
Minerals
Vitamins |
|
|
Term
What is a calorie?
1kcal is equal to how many kilojoules? |
|
Definition
heat required to raise the temp of 1g of water 1 degree
4.18kJ |
|
|
Term
| What is the ideal energy balance? |
|
Definition
| Energy Intake = Energy Expenditure |
|
|
Term
| What is energy intake? Energy expenditure? |
|
Definition
Intake:
-energy derived from food consumed
-food energy considered gross energy
Expenditure
-energy spent on heat production, maintenance & work/production |
|
|
Term
| What determines the amount of food a pet will consume? |
|
Definition
satiety
(reduced interest in eating after a meal) |
|
|
Term
| What regulates energy intake? |
|
Definition
Psychology
-learning, liking wanting
Sensory Cues
-sight, smell, taste
Palatability |
|
|
Term
| Describe the endocrine response & the relationship between the GI tract & vagus nerve in regulating energy intake (5 points) |
|
Definition
-GI tract & adipose tissue release chemical signals, sending information to the brain that the animal needs energy (food)
-leptin is released from adipose tissue
-ghrelin appears prior to meal, disappears after (a 'hunger' signal)
-cholecystokinase (CCK) slows entrance of nutrients & movement of through through intestine
-GRP stimulates release of gastrin from stomach/regulates gastric acid secretion |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the challenges in determining energy uptake? |
|
Definition
-relying on owners to report intake, very inaccurate
-dog are fed meals, but cats are often fed ad-libidum
-dogs & cats are often fed treats in addition to their meals, owners don't account for this |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the points of consideration when determining energy intake? (3) |
|
Definition
Feeding frequency
How much they are feeding
-based on label? vet recommendations? cup size?
What are they feeding
-commercial, self prepared, life stage diet etc. |
|
|
Term
| What are some important factors influencing energy intake? |
|
Definition
Feeding behaviour
-dogs eat large meals as a group every few days
-dogs have circadian rhythm, eat during daylight
-cats eat several small meals alone throughout day
-cats have no circadian rhythm
Environmental factors
-outdoor access (hunting?)
-multi pet household (sharing?)
-who is feeding (kids often overfeed!) |
|
|
Term
| Describe the flow chart of energy availability |
|
Definition
Gross Energy
(-fecal Losses)
Digestible Energy
(-urinary & gaseous losses)
Metabolizable Energy
(-HIF)
Net Energy
Net Energy for maintenance & Net Energy for work/production |
|
|
Term
| What levels of energy metabolism does the pet food industry deal with? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the quantitative method of determining DE? |
|
Definition
-follow AAFCO feeding trial guidelines with minimum 6 health animals
-use bomb calorimetry
DE = GE food - GE feces |
|
|
Term
| What is the indicator method of determining DE? |
|
Definition
-follow AAFCO feeding trial guidelines with minimum 6 health animals
-insert a non-digestible, non-absorbable marker uniformly mixed in the diet
-analyze GE of food & feces and the amount of marker in the feces
DE = ( 1- (GEfeces X % marker) / (GE food X % marker) ) X GE Food |
|
|
Term
| What is an example of a good marker to use in the indicator method of determining DE? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the methods of determining ME? |
|
Definition
Quantitative Collection
Predictive Equations |
|
|
Term
| What is the quantitative method of determining ME? |
|
Definition
-AAFCO feeding trial with or without urien collection
-record food intake & fecal weight
-analyze GE of food, feces (& urine)
ME = GE food - (GE Feces + GE urine)
ME = [GE food - GE feces [(g protein in food - g protein in feces) X c]] |
|
|
Term
| What is the predictive method of determining ME? |
|
Definition
-modified Atwater factors
ME = (3.5 X g protein) + (8.5 x g fat) + (3.5 x g carbohydrate) |
|
|
Term
| What are the modified Atwater values for protein, fat and carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
3.5kcal/g
8.5kcal/g
3.5kcal/g |
|
|
Term
| What factors influence energy availability? |
|
Definition
Food Properties
-ingredient quality
-processing conditions
-anti nutritional factors
Macronutrient Composition
-different macronutrients have different energy densities e.g. fat vs starches vs sugars vs protein |
|
|
Term
| What effect does extrusion have on starch digestibility? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
True or False
Adding fiber to a diet negatively affects the accuracy of ME estimations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What percentage of ME can be allotted to each of HIF, energy for maintenance & energy for work/production? |
|
Definition
HIF <10%
Maintenance 60-70%
Production up to 30% |
|
|
Term
| What are some examples of obligatory & facultative means of energy expenditure? |
|
Definition
Obligatory
-standard BMR
-sleeping thermogenesis
-thermic effect of food
-involuntary physical activity
Facultative
-shivering thermogenesis
-exercise |
|
|
Term
| What is resting energy expenditure? |
|
Definition
| energy required to support BMR at rest in a post-absorptive state & in a thermoneutral environment |
|
|
Term
| Describe some means of determining maintenance energy & pros and cons |
|
Definition
Indirect calorimetry
-accurate, minimally invasive, can determine HIF & macronutrient oxidation
-costly, technical, need time for acclimation
Doubly labeled water
-hydrogen & oxygen are tagged to measure input vs output & CO2 production
-accurate, minimally invasive, free living
-costly, technical, cannot separate individual components of energy expenditure
Feeding Trials
-non invasive, free living
-long term, inaccurate
Predictive Equations
-simple, quick, no cost
-inaccurate |
|
|
Term
| What are some factors affecting maintenance energy? |
|
Definition
Spay/Neuter
-% weight gain increases in the months after spay & neutering
-food intake/day increases after spay/neutering
Body Size
-RMR of larger breeds is greater
Body Composition
-fat mass vs lean muscle mass |
|
|
Term
| In cats, which gender is more susceptible to weight gain after spay/neutering? |
|
Definition
| male cats after neutering |
|
|
Term
| How does body composition affect maintenance energy requirements? |
|
Definition
Adipose Tissue
-endocrine organ, site of energy storage
-rapidly releases energy in the form of free FAs
Skeletal Muscle
-significant proportion of body mass in healthy animals
-protein turnover
-site of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake
-limited energy storage, relies on free FAs from adipose tissue |
|
|
Term
| What is the heat increment of feeding? |
|
Definition
-energetic costs of digestion absorption and assimilation of nutrients
Det. via indirect calorimetry, measure O2 uptake vs CO2 production to calculate energy expenditure |
|
|
Term
| As carbohydrate intake increases, the respiratory quotient should approach closer to.... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Meal size
-larger meal has a greater HIF and takes longer to return to normal energy expenditure after eating
Meal Frequency
-several small meals maintain a greater HIF for a longer period of time than 1 large meal
Meal Type
-protein has a greater thermic effect than fat and carbohydrates
Neutraceuticals
-considered a food/part of food with health benefits |
|
|
Term
True or False
The thermic effect of foods contributes to the feeling of satiety felt after eating |
|
Definition
True
Greater HIF = greater sensation of satiety |
|
|
Term
| What nutraceutical increases the HIF? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What types of 'work' / 'production' are considered when calculating the net energy required? |
|
Definition
-spontaneous activity
-exercise
-stress related behaviours
-exploration |
|
|
Term
| What factors influence physical activity? |
|
Definition
-health of the animal
-animal physiology
-cognitive abilities (impaired = more active?)
-environment
Dogs
-daily routines, outdoor access (walks, games etc)
-photoperiod (more activity during the day)
-temperature (more active when cooler)
Cats
-photoperiod
-outdoor access |
|
|
Term
| How is the net energy required for work/production determined? Pros/Cons of each? |
|
Definition
Indirect Calorimetry
-can control duration & intensity
-can determine what fuel is being utilized
-single bout of exercise
-costly
-acclimation (treadmill & mask) takes time
-only been used in dogs
Accelerometer
-non invasivve, simple
-can measure activity patterns throughout day
-suitable for dogs & cats
-measures activity patterns, doesn't quantify energy expenditure
Activity Journals |
|
|
Term
| What are three very popular fat supplements? |
|
Definition
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3)
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3)
Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:5 n-3) |
|
|
Term
| What is physical activity? |
|
Definition
| Complex behaviours elicited by a wide range of internal/external stimuli |
|
|
Term
| What are the indispensable amino acids? |
|
Definition
Arginine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Valine
Phenylalanine
Methionine
Tryptophan
Threonine
*Tyrosine for cats |
|
|
Term
| How would you determine protein requirements? |
|
Definition
Nitrogen Balance
nitrogen intake - nitrogen excretion
(-ive if losing more than taking in)
Ileal Cannulation
-measures proportion of input AA remain at the end of small intestine
Indirect Calorimetry
-direct or indirect AA oxidation |
|
|
Term
| Why are commercial diets providing protein in excess of requirement? Is this sustainable? |
|
Definition
-companies want to ensure both protein & AA requirements are met
-AA composition varies between sources
-consumer demands
-yes sustainable, protein is an expensive ingredient but can be upsold so companies still make a profit |
|
|
Term
| Describe the direct/indirect AA oxidation method of determining protein requirements |
|
Definition
-protein synthesis can only occur when essential AA req's are met
-excess AA will be oxidized
DAAO
-gradually increase the amount of AA of interest, the flatline reps protein synthesis, breakpoint where it starts to rise rep's the requirment
Pro: direct measurement of the AA of interest
Con: need a 24h adaptation period, long, potentially expensive experiment
INDIRECT
-use a marker AA for the AA of interest
-line declines where the essential AA is limiting protein synthesis
-when body can't make protein because an essential AA is missing, it will eventually oxidize all AAs
-breakpoint reps requirement
Pro: short experiments, can look at several AAs in the same day |
|
|
Term
| What are the consequences of commercial diets including protein in excess of requirements? |
|
Definition
-obesity
-excess protein is converted to fat |
|
|
Term
True or False
The NRC has yet to establish a safe upper limit for fat requirements for cats |
|
Definition
True
In the wild approximately 60% of energy would come from fat sources |
|
|
Term
| What is the goal when meeting fat requirements (1), and associated concerns (3)? |
|
Definition
-meet the need for essential AAs while being cautious about total fat content
-dietary fat = greater energy density
-highly palatable, could lead to excess energy intake by animal
-excess fat is stored, not catabolized like protein |
|
|
Term
| What are the locations for long-term & short-term fat storage in the body? |
|
Definition
Long term: adipocytes (adipose tissue)
Short term: liver |
|
|
Term
| Describe the changes in the body during early-stage modulation of obesity |
|
Definition
-decrease vascularization
-increased inflammation
-increased apoptosis
-increased insulin resistance
-greater number of hypoxic & apoptotic adipocytes |
|
|
Term
| What is the major form of stored plant energy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What proportion of dry matter in 'average' commercial dry foods is composed of CHO? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the NRC classifications of carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
Absorbable
Digestible
Fermentable
Non-fermentable |
|
|
Term
| What are the absorbable carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
-monosaccharides
-mainly glucose & fructose |
|
|
Term
True or False
Diets high in fructose do not cause a rapid peak in blood levels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What transporter is used for glucose/fructose uptake? What enzyme converts fructose to fructose-1-phosphate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the digestible carbohydrates? What are some common sources? |
|
Definition
disaccharides, lactose, some oligosaccharides, nonstructural polysaccharides
cereals & legumes |
|
|
Term
| What are the major enzymes involved in degradation of digestible carbohydrates in the small intestine? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the fermentable carbohydrates? What are some common sources? |
|
Definition
-lactose (if animal is intolerant), some oligosaccharides, resistant starches, dietary fiber
-legumes, wheat, barley, gums, gelling agents |
|
|
Term
| Why are some carbohydrates 'fermentable'? |
|
Definition
| They are not digested by enzymes in the SI, are fermented by microbes when they reach the colon |
|
|
Term
| What are some characteristics to consider with fermentable carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
Solubility
-soluble fibers are better energy substrates for microbes
Viscosity
-viscous fibers slow gastric emptying & intestinal transit time |
|
|
Term
| What animal would benefit most from fermentable carbohydrates' ability to lower post-prandial glucose & insulin peaks? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the end products of carbohydrate fermentation? What are the benefits of this? |
|
Definition
short chain fatty acids which can be used as energy sources by the animal
Propionate (gluconeogenesis in liver)
Butyrate (enter TCA in liver)
Acetate (enter TCA in liver, lipogenic) |
|
|
Term
Describe the fermentation rate & solubility of the following:
Fructals/Galactans/Mucilages
Pectin
Hemicellulose
Cellulose
Lignin |
|
Definition
Fructals/Galactans/Mucilages - rapid, soluble
Pectin - rapid/moderate, soluble
Hemicellulose - moderate/slow, insoluble
Cellulose - slow, insoluble
Lignin - not fermented |
|
|
Term
| What are the non-fermentable carbohydrates? Why is this the case? What nutritive effects do they have? |
|
Definition
cellulose, some hemicelluloses, lignin
-pets lack beta amylase to break down
-bind water, increase fecal bulk
-can decrease digestibility of other nutrients |
|
|
Term
| Compare the NRC macronutrient requirements to the content of average commercial foods to animal preference (dogs) |
|
Definition
NRC: Protein = Fat, no CHO
Commercial foods: protein > fat > CHO
*all above NRC
Preference: Fat > Protein > CHO *all well above NRC |
|
|
Term
| Compare the NRC macronutrient requirements to the content of average commercial foods to animal preference (cats) |
|
Definition
NRC: Protein = Fat, no CHO
Commercial foods: protein > fat > CHO
*all above NRC
Preference: Protein > Fat > CHO *all well above NRC |
|
|
Term
| How do discrepancies between NRC macronutrient recommendations, average commercial foods & animal preference affect energy balance? |
|
Definition
-fat is very energy dense
-fat increases intake (palatable)
-excess protein is catabolized whereas fat is not, it is stored
-CHO are not required, can affect glucose levels? |
|
|
Term
| Why does the protein requirement increase during gestation & lactation? |
|
Definition
| -to support fetal growth & milk production |
|
|
Term
| Which requires a greater amount of protein in the diet, gestation or lactation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the changes in fat requirements for dogs & cats during gestation |
|
Definition
Dogs
-need fat in excess of maintenane req to support increased energy needs
Cats
-requirement is similar to maintenance, however intake is still typically greater due to energy demands |
|
|
Term
| Describe the changes in fat requirements for dogs & cats during lactation |
|
Definition
Dogs
-NRC has yet to det requirement beyond maintenance
Cats
-requirement is similar to maintenance, however intake is still typically greater due to energy demands |
|
|
Term
| Do dogs & cats require carbohydrates to make glucose to support lactose production? |
|
Definition
Not necessarily
-AAs are gluconeogenic, and adequate protein in the diet is enough to support lactose production even if no carbs are present.
-if no carbs and low protein, then you will have problems |
|
|
Term
| Describe the stages of postnatal nutrition |
|
Definition
1st 72h - colostrum for passive immunity
4 weeks - all nutrition from mother, small stomach so several small meals
4-6 wks - introduce solid food with warm water
7-9 weeks - can be completely weaned |
|
|
Term
| What are the various groups of body weights of dogs? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some considerations for energy requirements for small dogs? |
|
Definition
| they have lower maintenance energy requirements proportional to large dogs |
|
|
Term
| What is the fat requirement for growing dogs, post-weaning? |
|
Definition
| somewhere between the nutrient profile of milk, and the adult requirement for maintenance |
|
|
Term
| What are some important considerations regarding nutrition & giant breeds? |
|
Definition
-they are very sensitive to excess energy intake & excessive Ca in the diet
-Ca absorption in puppies is via passive diffusion in SI, can't protect against excess in diet
-50% of ingested Ca is absorbed and directed to the skeleton, small amount excreted |
|
|
Term
| Why is it important to feed quality protein to growing puppies & kittens? |
|
Definition
| -to support lean tissue growth & maximize body weight gains |
|
|
Term
| Describe the characteristics of primary aging (4) |
|
Definition
-progressive deterioration of physical structure & biological function
-happens regardless of disease/other factors
-cannot stop or reverse
-cause thought to be due to accummulation of cellular damage |
|
|
Term
| Describe the characteristics of secondary aging (4) |
|
Definition
-acceleration of primary aging by factors like genetics, disease, harmful environment, lifestyle
-can prevent secondary aging to improve health-related quality of life |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the changes in cognitive function & behaviour in aging animals (4) |
|
Definition
-sleep cycle
-response to verbal commands
-interactions with family & other pets
-activity patterns |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the changes in physical appearance in aging animals? (4) |
|
Definition
-graying, dull coat
-loss of muscle mass
-vision impairments
-hearing impairments |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the changes in muscoskeletal structure in aging animals? (3) |
|
Definition
-lose of bone density
-sarcopenia (progressive loss of skeletal muscle)
-reduced BMR |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the changes in got morphology & nutrient digestion in aging animals? (4) |
|
Definition
-reduced salivary & gastric secretions
-decreased size of villi, cellular turnover, colonic motility
-changes in intestinal microbe populations
-cats have decreased nutrient digestion (esp fat)
-no change in dogs |
|
|
Term
| How does the life span of cats vary from dogs? |
|
Definition
-all cats age uniformly
-small dogs have longer life span than large |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The period of time during which a dog is health.
Owners are willing to trade life span for improved quality of life! Surgeries, meds etc more common |
|
|
Term
| What are the goals of senior nutrition? |
|
Definition
Health longevity: increased life span & health related quality of life
Slow/prevent physiological & metabolic changes associated with aging |
|
|
Term
| What are the challenges of senior nutrition? |
|
Definition
-little research & data for pets, often based on human extrapolation
AAFCO does NOT
-define senior life stage
-provide senior reqs
-regulate terms on label
Nutritional adequacy statement is for adult/all life stages, but diets are highly variable |
|
|
Term
| Describe the changes in energy requirements seen in aging cats & dogs |
|
Definition
Cats
-no change in RER
-decreased nutrient digestion
-no change in activity
Dogs
-decreased RER with age & body size (breed)
-no change in nutrient digestion
-decreased activity |
|
|
Term
True or False
Energy restriction seems to provide protection from age-related development of disease, with no effects on malnutrition |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the biggest challenge with energy restriction in pets? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the major site of insulin-mediated glucose disposal? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the changes in protein requirements seen in aging dogs & cats |
|
Definition
-assumed to increase
-need to maintain N balance, support protein turnover, reduce lean body mass loss |
|
|
Term
| Describe the changes in fat requirements seen in aging dogs & cats |
|
Definition
Dogs
-decreased maintenance energy requirement
-increased body fat:lean mass
Cats
-decreased fat digestibility |
|
|
Term
| What is the concern with losing lean mass and accumulating fat mass? |
|
Definition
-increased risk of diabetes
-kidney damage
-strain on heart = blood pressure increase
-fatty liver disease
-osteoarthritis |
|
|
Term
| Describe the changes in carbohydrate requirements seen in aging dogs & cats |
|
Definition
-no changes noted in digestion in dogs or cat
-glucose tolerance & insulin sensitivity declines with age (cats especially)
-greater risk for metabolic diseases e.g. diabetes |
|
|
Term
| What type of carbohydrate may be benefical for senior animals and why? |
|
Definition
| fermentable CHO as they help to regulate post-prandial glucose & insulin peaks |
|
|
Term
| What nutrients make up the class of micronutrients? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the sources of water? |
|
Definition
Diet (canned vs dry)
Drinking water (temperature, diet, exercise)
Metabolic water
-prod during nutrient oxidation
-depends on metabolic rate & type of diet |
|
|
Term
| What are the means of losing water? |
|
Definition
Obligatory
-kidneys remove waste
Facultative
-kidney water resorption
-fecal loss
-evaporation |
|
|
Term
True or False
Cats tolerate dehydration better than any other species |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the fat soluble vitamins? Water soluble? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the macrominerals required? (6) Trace minerals? (6) |
|
Definition
Ca P Mg Na K Cl-
Fe Zn Cu Mn I Se |
|
|
Term
| How are the vitamin & mineral requirements for pets determined? |
|
Definition
-very little research done to determine individual requirements
-most standards are based on clinical deficiencies/toxicities
-for pets on a commercial diet, deficiencies/toxicities are rarely problematic |
|
|
Term
| What are some nutritional concerns with feeding cats vegetarian or vegan diets? |
|
Definition
cats have evolved eating frequent small prey meals, and as such taurine has become an essential AA in their diet
-vegetarian sources of taurine are limited
-taurine deficiency can cause blindness & heart disease
-cannot synthesize vit D3, need a dietary source (meat)
-inadequate supply of arachidonic acid |
|
|
Term
| What are some concerns with home made diets? |
|
Definition
-70% of owners do not use a recipe
-those that do, only half use a veterinarian's recipe
Raw food is often fed
-risk of contamination, Salmonella, to pets & humans
-raw liver = Vit A toxicity
-raw eggs = biotin deficiency
-raw fish = thiamine defifiency
-bones = calcium deficiency, tooth fractures, GI perforation
-risk of not meeting nutritional requirements, vitamins & minerals in particular
-Potassium & Copper in particular are often deficient |
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