atom

"unable to cut," or "can't split"

smallest particule which still has original properties of substance

consists of subparticules: protons, neutrons, & electrons

at elemental states has a neutral charge

Q.

1. The 3 particles that make up atoms are protons, neutrons, and electrons.

positive charged particules

same mass as neutrons

nucleus forces bind together protons and neutrons

no charge(neutral)

binded by nucleus forces together with protons

same mass as protons

negative chage

surrond/circle nucleus at a distance

1/1840 mass of proton

substance

1 type of atoms # of atoms = atomic # (distingues)

atoms of the same element but different in # of neutrons

(same # of protons & neutrons)

different mass

e.x.

C-12-6p+6n

C-14 6p+8n

b/c they have the same # of electrons all isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties

sum of protons & neutrons

it identifies isotopes

radioactive isotopes

called radioisotopes 

nuclei unstable

breakdown, shoots out matter & energy, at constant rate over time

dangerous

useful

-decay at a rate called half life(used to measure age of fossils)

-used for medical diagnosis(kills cancer), treatment and reasearch

excited state

(subj.)

when atom absorbs energy its electrons move to a higher energy level

e.x.

during photo. chlorophyll molecules get excited & provide energy to make sugar

a substance fomed by the chemical combination of 2 or more elements in defintie positions, different cemical and phyical properties

e.x.

H 2 0

Q.

1. A compound is a substance formed by the combination of two or more elements in definate proportions.

hold atoms in compounds together

energy is relased when bond is formed

energy must be supplied/absorbed to break bond

atoms bond to acheive stabilty, to aquire a completed outer shell

2 different types

-ionic

-covalent

electrons are transferred from 1 atom to another, attraction b/w opposite charged

ions(atoms that are neg. &pos. charged

an atom that gains electrons-neg.(-) charge-anion

an atom that losses an electron-pos.(+) charge-cation

Q

1. Positive ions form when an atom loses electrons.
2. A potassium atom K becomes a potassium ion K⁺ when the atom loses an electron.

forms when atoms share electrons, in order for each atom to have a full outer shell

the resulting structure is called a molecule

-single covalent bond:2 atoms share 1 pair of electrons

-double covaltent bond: 2 atoms share 2 pairs of electrons

-triple covalent bond: 2 atoms share 3 pairs of electrons

theres Polar & Nonpolar Covalent bonds

-very tight bond, form true molecule

Q.

1. CO₂ is a molecule with double bonds. A double bond means that each atom shares 2 electrons.

Nonpolar covalent bonds

(subj)

on final?

electrons are shared equally

formed between any 2 atoms alike

Polar Covalent Bond

(subj.)

final?

electrons shared unequally

formed between any 2 atoms unalike

the negative end of 1 polar molecule attracts the positive end of another polar molecule

e.x.

water

intermolecular forces of attraction, slight attraction that develops between the oppostie charged regions of nearby molecules.

nonpolar molecules

sharing electrons in covalent bonds is not always equal

regions of the molecule may be + or -

intermolecular forces can hold molecules together

-arranges known elements by ascending atomic #

horizontal periods

vertical gourps/families

info in table (atomic # on top, # of protons & electrons)

atomic mass # (# of protons & neutrons)

avg. of isotptoes

1. If a chlorine atom had 17 protons and 28 neutrons in would be called chlorine-35.

-cohesion:"hang onto," 1 molecule hanging to another

-adhesion:molecules stick to solid surfaces

-capilartiy-climbs up tiny openings

-liquid (not a gas)

-resists colling/heating

-solid (ice) less dense, expands, floats- high specific heat

-universal solvent (dissolves stuff)

- very polar molecule: it forms hydrogen bonds with neighboring water molecules

Q.

1. Due to an uneven distribution of its electrons, a water molecule is slightly charged at each end.

the positive charge on the H atom is attracted to the neighboring O with its negative charge

(important to life:moderates weather, ice floats on surface & insulates water / life beneath.

plants frow tall w/ capillary action forms solutions in enviorment & in cells

also called a colloid

non-dissolved particuls suspended in medium

e.x. fog, obleck, blood, salad dressing, cytoplasm in cell

s solvent(e.x. water) dissolves a solute (e.x. salt)

mixture a homogeneous

physical not chemical

1. When you dissolve salt  in water, you produce a mixture called a solution.
2. In this mixture of salt in water, water is a solvent.

compounds that relase H+ into solution

-HCI: H + CI-

H is the most chemically reactive ion known

H+ joins H2O to form H30 (hydronium ion)

bases

compounds that rlease hydroxide ions (OH-) into solution

NaOH: NA + OH

(hydroxide also very reactive (ammonia bleach))

measures the strenght of acids & bases

logartithmic, each # is 10 times stronger than the 1 before

-0 to 7 is acid

-7-14 is base

-7 is neutral-water

(most cells pH 6.5-7.5)

(pH of cell regulates reactions e.x. enzymes)[image]

[image]

are the units, the "mini-molecues" which are built first

e.x. carbohydrates are long chains made of simple sugars

-easier to break down (digest) a polymer into its monomer, than break down the monomer

are categorized by pieces of molecules called funtional groups

-OH (hydroxide)

-COOH caroxyl/acid groups

-NH2 amine group

a process in which a chemical changes occures; can proceed slowly, rapidly or explosively

(bonds are broken & formed)

Equation:

O2 + 2H2 _ 2 H20

reactants "yields" products

(balanced equation)

-reactions are reversible, but occur spontanesouly only in one direction ( where engery is released)

-need energy put in to run the reverse

2H20__o2+2H2

( in this direction requires energy (electricity) to run)

matter is neither created nor destroyed

are protiens that act as catalyscts (speed up reaction)

-spped up both synthese & decmopostion reactions (breaking down)

-lower the needed activiation energy

-are specifif for each particular reaction

-are many & varied in each cell

-are affected by temp & PH cellular enviorment

-are turned off/on by the cell

- form a complex w/ the substance ( the reactants in the equation)

consist of C6 H12 O6 C(H20) carbo hydrate

C:H:O

1:2:1

suplly quick energy

one gram wil relase 4 calories

3 clasess:

-monosaccarides: C6H12O6; glucose, galactose, fructose [isomers of each other(same molecular formula but with differ. structures)] 

-dissaccarides C12 H22 O11; maltose, sucrose, lactose, 2 monosaccharides, joined by dehydration synthesis

polysaccaride: plymers of carb. many mono. joined toghether; cellulose, starch (plants), chitin,  glycogen(animals)

Q.

1. Glycogen is the storage form of polysaccharides in animals.
2. The organic compounds that contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ONLY are carbohydrates.
3. A polysaccaride that strengthens plant cells is cellulose.

include fats, olis, waxes-nonpolar

-don't dissolve in water

C,H, O(h less then O then in carbs.- ligheter wieght)

-monomer2: glycerol short C chain w/ H & OH fatty acids chains of C w/ COOH

-1 g. of fat = 9 cal.

-long term storage of energy

-used to build hormones & for protection

saturated fat-:( fatty acid is saturated w/ hydrogen-has max # of hydrogen, only single bonds, solid @ room temp, unhealthy

unsaturated: extracted from plants, fatty acid had 1 or more double bonds so nat as many hydrogens, liquid @room temp., healthier.

hydrogenated fat: hydrogen has been forced onto structure in order to made the oil a solide for voncience e.x. margrine

Functions: phospholipides are a major component of cell membrane, some lipids are hormones

1. If all the carbon bonds in a fatty acid chain are joined by single bonds with a maximu number of hydrogen atoms, the fatty acid is said to be saturated.
2. Waxy or oily compounds are lipids.
   1. To release the energy contained in a carbohydrate or lipid, a carbon-hydrogen bond must be broken.
   2. Triglycerides may be formed by attaching 3 fatty acids to glycerol.

-meats, enyzymes

-CHON & some S

-monomer: amino acid (20 differ.) each has a centeral C w/ an H plus an amino group (NH20), carobxylic acid, a unque group "R"

-are polymers or polypepetides consisting of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

-function: building structure messengers b/t cells pumps to move material through membrane disease dense, speeds up reactions

-join a.a. by dehydration synthesis

-bond is called a peptide bond

-2 a.a. joined ia dipeptide

-many a.a. = polypeptide

-finished protein is 2 polypetides chains folded into a final shape, related to its function

tetiary structure-3 dimensional shape

quaternary structure-of a protein involves more then 1 polypeptide chain

Q.

1. Amino acid is to protein as simple sugar is to starch.
2. There are 20 different amino acids.
3. Each amino acid contains a different R group.
4. Proteins do NOT play an important role in supplying energy to the cell.
5. The monomer units of proteins are amino acids.
6. Unlike carbohydrates, proteins contain nitrogen.
7. The amino acids glycine and alanine bond to form a dipeptide.
8. Peptide bonds join amino acids together.

DNA & RNA

-must be large to hold info.

-shape must be easy to copy (each cell needs all infor.)

Result: DNA->large polymer->double helix->monomer-> nucleotide

phosphate, nitrogen, base

-store genetic info.

-pass info to next generation

-info directs all organism actions

-gene: seg. of DNA 1 protien recipe

RNA: 1 side of the ladder

DNA-ACTG

adenine,guanine-purines

cytosine, thymine-pyrimdines

RNA-ACGU

uracil-pyridmines

the order is the info

the seuqence is the recipe for a protein.

uracil is not thymine

ribose not deoxyribose

Q.

1. RNA molecules are made of nucleotides.
2. Nucleic acids are responsible for carrying genetic information.
3. The information making the genetic code in DNA is found in the particular order of nitrogenous bases.
4. DNA and RNA are examples of nucleic acids.

dehydration synthesis

process of joining sugars

Q.

1. In dehydration synthesis, two smaller molecules are combined by the removal of a water molecule.

enzymes

are large proteins

speed up reactions by lowering the energy of activations

the chemical that the enzyme works on -substrate

-a substrate enters active site it induces the enzyme to alter its shape,

are reused

enyzmes are named after substrates, the name ends in suffix

the efficiecy is affected by temp. & pH.

Q.

life, including land, water, air or atomsphere

Q. 

The combined portions of Earth in which all living things exist is called the

-biosphere

species

population

community

ecosystem

biome

group of organisms, breed & produce offspring

2. Which of the following descriptions about the organization of an ecosystem is correct?    

 -Species make up populations, which make up communities

all living organisms in a particular place

group of ecosystems, same climate, similar dominant communities

Q.

autotrophs

producers, "self feed"

use energy from the enviorment to build organic molecules:

- photosynthetic:use light energy to convert CO₂ &H₂O into carbs (plants, algae, some bacteria)

-chemosynthetic:use energy in bonds or inorganic compounds to produce carbs (some bacteria)

energy flows from the sun/organic molecules

->autotrophs:self dependent->hetetroph:rely on others for energy & food.

Q.

 An organism that uses energy to produce its own food supply from inorganic compounds is called an      -autotroph 

heterotrophs

consumers "other" feed

-must get energy from organic molecules (food)

herbivores

carnivores

omnivores

detrivores

decomposers

Q.

eat plants

Q.

eat both plants & animals

Q.

carnivores

eat remains or dead matter

break down organic matter

Q.

step in the food chain/ web 

only 10 % of energy is available to net trophic level ->90% is used, lost as heat

Q.

-False, 10 percent

energy pyramid(only 10% of evergy is available to next trophic level -> 90% is used lost as heat)

[image]

biomes pyramid: (amount of orgainc matter/unit area)

pyramid of numbers

Q.

 In a 4-level energy, if the first level contains 500 calories of energy, the third level will contain approximately 5.

energy moves in 1 direction in an ecosystem;matter recycles

Q. 

evapration:water changes to atmospheric gas

transpiration:water evaporated from the leaves of plans

condensation:gas changes to liquid

precipiation:rain

carbon cycle

sources of CO₂: respiration, decomposition, volcanoes, buring fuel

uses for CO₂:for photosynthesis in plants algae, bacteria

-carbohydrates (& other organic molecules):produced by autrophs, consumed by heterotrophs

-CaCO₃ (calcium carbonate) in animial skeletons, also in ocean ecosystems & sediments

Q.

Nitrogen Cycle

( i don't think its on the final)

N₂ is 78 % of atmosphere but only some bacteria can use ( in soil on roots of leguemes -> nitrogen fixation: N₂->NH₃-lightning also!

-other bacteria: NH₃->NO₃  Nitrates, or NO₂; nitrites

-plants take NO₂ & NO₃ & produce protiens

animal eat plants

-decoposers; bacteria takes protein -> NH₃;other bacteria NO₂ & NO₃ compounds -> N₂(dentrification)

the rate at which organic matter is created by producers amount of avilable nutrients limits growth

Q.

lg. area w/ certain soil & climate condidtions has particular plants & animals

plants & animals show adaptions to conditions ( inherited characteristics increase survival & varying tolerance levels)

Q.

has significant effect (temp. precip.)

microclimates: local variations in climate

Q. 

     -microclimates

intially there is plenty of food/space

populaiton grows slowly then more rapidly (exponential)

growth then slows or stops (birthrates slos or deathrate increases)

forms "s" shaped curve

Q.

The various growth phases which most populations go are represented on an-Logistic growth curve

In a logistic growth curve, exponential growth is the phase in which the population-Grows quickly

the largest # of indiciduals that an enviorment can support

point on logistic growth curve where populatio levels out

factors that cause pop. growth to decrease

Q.

If a nutrient is in such short supply in an ecosystem that if affects an animal’s growth the     -substance is a limiting nutrient

What’s a limiting factor? Give 2 examples of density dependent, limiting factors and explain.

-competion

-predatation

depends on pop. siz; becomes imporant @ a certain level

-competition

-predation

affects all pop. the same

-severe weather, disasters, human activities, pop. may crash, may recover/remain low

high birthrate & high death rate -> advance nutrition sanitation -> low deathrate (pop. grows rapidly) -> modernization & more education -> low birthrate & deathrate ( pop. growth slows & stops)

Q.

factors that influence pop. siz : # births # of deaths # enter/leave

immigration

emmigration

Q.

When individuals move into 1 population from different population it is called immigration.

populatio nhas ideal condidtions : abundant space & food, no predators, no disease

pop. grows at a constant rate

pop. increases slowly at 1st then rapidly -> J curve

doesn't continue in natural pop. for long

Q.

Q. 

all living things are made of cells

cells are basic unit of structure & function

cells come form pre-exisisting cells

Q.

 The work of Schleiden and Schwann can be summarized by saying that... all plants and animals are made of cells.

Summarize three statements from the cell theory.  1: all living things are made of cells. 2: new cells are formed from pre-existing cells. 3: cells are the basic units of structure and function

In a multicultural animal a cell is a unit of structure as well as... function.

"true nucleus"

evolved later

DNA in nucleus

lg. complex

plants, animals, protisits, fungi

Q. 

If a cell contains a nucleus it must be a Eukaryote

structure: jellylike, solution& suspension contains water, salts, organic molecules fibers for movement

function: surrounds organelles always in motion -> cytoplasmic streaming

Q. 

Which of the following is NOT found in the nucleus? cytoplasm

structure: surrounded by nuclear membrance (aka nuclear envelope) which has 2 layers w/ pores; inside is nucleoplasm w/ small dark regions called nucleoli

-threadlike fibers -> chromatin (made of DNA)

function: info center of cell DNA

DNA gives instruction on how to build proteins-> run all function of cell & organism

nucleous-makes RNA &DNA

Q.

The production of ribosomes begins in a small dense nuclear structure called the Nucleolus

structure: made of phospholipid bilayer proteins are stuck to surface, some are carbohydrate chains -> also protien which "float" in bilayer functio: sperate cell from surroundings slectively permeable -> regulates what goes in/out-also prtoects, supports, proteins are channels & pumps carbs signal neighbor cells

Q.

The cell membrane regulates which substances enter and leave a cell

 The cell membrane contians channels and pumps that help move materials from one side to the other. what are the channels these channels& pumps made of? proteins

ribosomes

structure: small partiules made of RNA & protein found in cytoplasm & attached to ER

function: assembled proteins ( use "directions" from DNA)

if in cytoplasm -> proteins for the cell

-if on ER-> proteins are exported out of cell

Q.

The function of which cell structure would be affected by a poion interfering with the formation of proteins? Ribosome

endoplasmic reticulum

structure:folded system of membrances, sacs & tunnels

smooth ER-> no ribosomes

rough ER-> many ribosomes

function:site of building

(smooth er stores protiens)

Q.

The ER is best described as ... Passageway
 Proteins move from one area to another area within a cell through the ER

Ribosomes stud the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum

structure: stack of membrane/flat sacs filled w/ fluids & dissolved materials & enzymes.

function: modify, sort & package prtoen &other molecules produced at ER-> may store/empty out of cell

"cell factory" (protein synthesis)

Q.

Which sequence correctly traces the path of a protein in the cell? rough ER, Golgi, released from cell

structure: small organelles filled w/ enzymes, membrane bound vesicles

function: digestion/break down of lipids, carbs, proteins into small molecules that can be used by the rest of the cell, breadown organelles that have outlived their usefullness, "removing junk"

Q.

The organelle that breaks down molecule and old parts is the... Lysome

structure:organelles;enclosed by a membrance

function:converta chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convient for the cell to use for energy

mitochondria goes to egg to children;has its own DNA

endosymbiosis

Q.

Which organelle converts the chemical energy stored in food into chemical compounds for energy? mitochondrion

cytoskeleton

structure:

microfilaments:threadlike;made of actin

microtubles:hollow, made of tublins

function: helps cell maintain shape gives eukaryotic cell their internal organization

microfilaments framework supports cell, helps them move

microtube:maintain shape& helps w/ cell division; helps build cilia & flagella

Q.

in plants, fungi, some bacteria

sturcutre: rigid covering outside of cell mebrane-2/more layers in plants made of cellulose, glue layers w/ pectin

function:protects & supports cell, has pores to allow substance in/out

cells w/  cell wall also have cell membrane

Q. 

Which has The same relationship as skeleton: cell wall:Digestive tract: lysome

The main function of the cell wall is to... support and protect the cell

"before" "nucleus"

most ancient no true nucleus

bacteria

What types or organisms are prokaryotes? organisms w/out nucleus

passive transport(needs no added energy)

movement of moleculesto an area of lower concentration

 eg. cookie smell

Why?

molecules are in movement due to kinetic energy

Q. 

reaches point where conetration is the same throughout the molecules still move, no net change

Q.

Once equilibrium is reached, roughly equal numbers of molecules move in either direction across a semi permeable, and there is no further change in concentration on either side of the membrane.

the difference in concentration across a distance when go high to low " move down the gradient"

Q.

Molecules diffuse across a concentration gradient because they... are moving randomly throughout the system

potential energy

energy available to do work if molecules build up on one side the concetration gradient is PE

could be io Ht has electric potential

eg nerve impulse

osmosis

diffusion of water across a membrane

from high to low concentration

Q.

Cystic fibrosis disrupts the movement of chloride ions through the cell membrane. This in turn disrupts water regulation becuase the concentration of chloride ions affects... osmosis through all membranes

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis

facilitate or hlep the diffusion

different protein channels have been found that allow particular substances to cross different membrances

doesn't require energy

diffusion-high concentration to low

Q,

Fairly small polar molecules (amino acids and glucose) are... helped into the cell by protein channels 

How do facilitated diffusion and active transport differ? Facilitated diffusion does not require energy b/c it does not move against the concentration gradient.   Active transport, however, does require energy b/c it moves against the concentration gradient.

against concentration

requires energy

Q.

Which means of particle transport requires input of energy from the cell? active transport 

How do facilitated diffusion and active transport differ? Facilitated diffusion does not require energy b/c it does not move against the concentration gradient.   Active transport, however, does require energy b/c it moves against the concentration gradient.

osmosis exerts pressure

isotonic: concemtration of solutes is the same inside & outside

hepertonic: solutio has a higher solute concentration than cell

hypotonic: solution has a lower solute concentration then the cell

Q.

an animal cell that is surrounded by fresh water will burst because the osmotic pressure causes... water to move into the cell

A red blood cell place in pure water will pop

animal cell

plant cell

the process of releasing large amounts of material from cell

the membrance of the vacuole surrounding the material fuses withe cell membrance forcing the content out of the cell

Q.

process of taking material into the cell by means of infolding or pockets of cell membrance

Q. 

Very large molecules (proteins) enter the cell by... endocytosis

cells develop different ways to perform different tasks

Q..

Which term refers to cells having different jobs in an organism? cell specialization

cells->tissues->organs->organ systems

Q.

. List the four levels of celluar organization in a multicelluar organism from simplest to most complex.  cell-->tissue-->organ-->organ system.

aka dark reaction or light independent reactions

-can be in light or dark

-stomata must be OPEN

-the function is to produce sugar

-carbon dioxide which the plant takes in throught the stomates, combines w/ hydrogen from the light reactions by NADP to produce CH₂O

energy comes from ATP which is produced by light reactions

production of PGAL

rubisco required

Q. 

The Calvin reactions of photosynthesis cannot take place without the products of the light reactions

Photosynthesis

solar energy is converted to chemical energy C from CO₂ is assembled into compounds such as sugars which store energy and provide building material for the plant

Reaction           Glucose

6CO₂+ 6H₂O->C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O_{2 (leaves roots)}

happens in 2 stages light dependent & calvin cycle

Q.

Photosynthesis does not require oxygen.

Photosyntesis equation:

                            Chlorophyll     

 ATP is produced: occurs during light reactions  

Palisade layer and spongy mesophyll: where most of photosynthesis occurs

In the leaf, most photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll.

light energy need to start process

location: in thylakoids (stacked membrane sacs in chloroplasts contain chlorophyl(& enzyme)

steps:

1. light absorbtion: light hits photosstem (cluster of Chlorophyll molecules); pass energy to specific molecule->reaction center-> accumalates energy-> pop off an electron-> jumps to a protein (electron carrier)

2. Electron Transport Chain (connects photosytem I & photosystem II)

-special protein in thlakoid areelectron carriers

-pass electon like a "bucket brigade"

-pass electron & Hydrogen to NADP->NADPH->holds energy in bonds

3. Oxygen Production

-chlorophyll needs to replcae missing electron

-break water

gains Hydrogen Oxygen gets released

4. ATP Formation

-inside of thyladoid fills w/ Hydrogen

-insdie + ouside -

-concentration gradient=potential energy

-chemismosis: hydrogen moves across membrane energy used for ADP-> ATP energy in bonds

(light as moved electrons from chlorophyll changing NADP-> NADPH & ADP -> ATP;water has been pulled apart & oxygen has been release

Q.

The light reactions of photosynthesis cannot occur in the dark.

Photosystems are clusters of light-absorbing pigments located in the thylakoids of a chloroplast.

The electrons essential to the oxygen production process of the light reaction are taken from water.

In the light reactions, hydrogen ions cause the inside of the photosynthetic membrane to become positively charged.

enzyme required for Calvin Cycle 

Q. 

The function of rubisco in photosynthesis is to bring together CO2 and RuBP