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Sex = category based on biological traits.
Gender = category that is socially and culturally constructed; social roles. |
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Gender Dimorphism in plants= Gender has different meaning in different contexts. Disruspts self-incompatibility and leads to inbreeding depression.
Homogametic (xx) , Heterogametic (xy), -xxy fruitflies are female. |
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| the biologic and psychosocial changes that lead to sexual maturity. (Biologic changes in humans are discussed under reproductive organs.) |
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| (XXY)male who genitalia is smaller, breast are slightly larger than the average male. the set of symptoms resulting from additional X genetic material in males. Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic disorder in which there is at least one extra X chromosome to a standard human male karyotype, for a total of 47 chromosomes rather than the 46 found in genetically typical humans |
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Turner syndrome is a genetic disorder that affects a girl's development. The cause is a missing or incomplete X chromosome. Girls who have it are short, and their ovaries don't work properly.
Other physical features typical of Turner syndrome are
Short, "webbed" neck with folds of skin from tops of shoulders to sides of neck
Low hairline in the back
Low-set ears
Swollen hands and feet
(XO ( No Y or other X); phenotypically a female; shorter than average. |
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| Genetically male (XY), but really developmentally a female. ( but without ovaries). A good example of this would be the actress Jamie Lee Curtis. Internal male testes but external female genitalia. the testicles in these patients produced a hormone that had a feminizing effect on the body, a phenomenon that is now understood to be due to the inaction of androgens, and subsequent aromatization of testosterone into estrogen. |
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| Guevedoches Syndrome [Dom.Repub.] ( Kwotu aatmwol <-- New Guinea) |
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| autosomal mutation that causes a deficiency in a particular enzyme ( A boy who looks more female than male, but then becomes male at puberty and grows a penis...also develops facial hair. Clearly, it's going to be hard to socialize this person as a male, since the person was previously seen as being a female.) |
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| Sexual Activity/Preference |
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| differences in sexual preference/choice |
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| differences between men and women ; phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species, meaning that there are obvious differences between the male and female of the species. The main differences are the presence or absence of reproductive organs. However, more obvious differences are often secondary sex characteristics, such as size differences in males and females, ornamentation and behavior. |
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| Cognitive/Behavorial differences by sex |
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- There are no IQ differences between males and females.
- Females outperform males in verbal fluency, perceptual speed, language, and basic arithmetic.
- Males outperform females in math reasoning , and spatial visualization.
- Males have slightly larger brains than females.
- Females have more neurons in their brain.
-Males and females use their brain differently ( PET Scan Differences) |
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| Sex differences in performance ( non-genetic factors) |
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1. often do not appear until adolescence
2. vary by country
3. vary over time
** Gender Discrimination affects achievement ** |
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| Biological basis of Sexual Orientation |
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| Simon Levay's Study of INAH3 |
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| INAH3 was more than twice as large in heterosexual men as in homosexual men. The INAH3 size of homosexual men was the same as that of women. LeVay wrote that "This finding indicates that INAH is dimorphic with sexual orientation, at least in men, and suggests that sexual orientation has a biological substrate. |
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| Means occurring in or representing two distinct forms. ( For example: "in this sexually dimorphic species only the males have wings" ) |
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| Hamer's Study of Xq28 alleles |
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| The 1993 study by Hamer examined 114 families of gay men in the United States and found increased rates of homosexuality among maternal uncles and cousins, but not among paternal relatives. This pattern of inheritance suggested that there might be linked genes on the x-chromosome, since males always inherit their copy of the x-chromosome from their mothers. Polymorphisms of genetic markers of the x-chromosome were analyzed to see if a specific marker was shared by a disproportionate amount of brothers who were both gay. The results showed that among gay brothers, the concordance rate for markers from the Xq28 region were significantly greater than expected for random Mendelian segregation, indicating that a link did exist. ; A follow-up study, conducted in 1995 by the Hamer lab in collaboration with two groups of statistical experts, corroborated the original results for males with homosexual brothers sharing Xq28 at significantly elevated rates. This study also included heterosexual brothers, who showed significantly less than expected sharing of the Xq28 region, as expected for a genetic locus that in one form is associated with same-sex attraction and in another form is associated with opposite-sex attraction. In this study no link to Xq28 was found among homosexual females, indicating a different genetic pathway as for most sex-specific phenotypes. |
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| Variation in IQ/Intelligence - Environmental Influences |
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| IQ scores are correlated with: family income, single vs. 2-parent household, state educational expenditures, country of origin,family attitudes towards education, and family size. |
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| Variation in IQ/intelligence - Genetic Factors |
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Estimates of IQ heritability from studies of twins and other relatives. Linkage analysis: used to identify specific genes that may influence intelligence. For ex: ASPM & microcephalin genes.
- proposed genes account for <2% of variation.
- Amyloid precursor protein gene (app) and fmr2 tied to abnormal cognitive function. |
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| The first Intelligence test (IQ) was developed by Alfred Binet in 1904. The test was originally designed to see who was considered "mentally retarded/ slow" or not. He was really trying to learn about learning speeds. He came up with the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) "mental age divided by actual age , then multiplied by 100". |
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| Large-scale IQ testing was first conducted in the U.S. by Lewis Terman in 1916. ( the Stanford - Binet IQ test). Terman is the one who shifted IQ into being an "innate trait'. These were absolutely not Alfred Binet's intentions , because binet only designed the test to look at learning speeds, but Terman shifted it to something else. |
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| Charles Spearman's "general factor" or g : tried toexplain why scores differed on cognitive tests , and felt that there must be some "genetic intelligence" factor that underlies all of this. |
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| Fractionating Human Intelligence |
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Felt that there were 3 components/parts of intelligence :
1. Reasoning , 2. Short-term memory, and 3. Verbal
Since different parts of the brain perform different tasks, most people were able to conclude that there is NOT just one thing that is responsible for intelligence. |
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he developed the Army's Alpha and Beta Intelligence Tests, the first nonverbal group tests, which were given to over 1 million United States soldiers during the war.
The test ultimately concluded that recent immigrants (especially those from Southern and Eastern Europe) scored considerably lower than older waves of immigration (from Northern Europe), and was used as one of the eugenic motivations for harsh immigration restriction. The results would later be criticized as very clearly only measuring acculturation, as the test scores correlated nearly exactly with the number of years spent living in the US. ; These test also found that the average person in the U.S. was a "moron". |
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| The two test were the Army Alpha and Army Beta IQ tests. Army Alpha test measured "verbal ability, numerical ability, ability to follow directions, and knowledge of information". Scores on the Army Alpha were used to determine a soldier's capability of serving, his job classification, and his potential for a leadership position. Soldiers who were illiterate or foreign speaking would take the Army Beta, the nonverbal equivalent of the exam. The Army Beta test had pictures, geometric figures, etc. |
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| Showed that average performance on IQ tests has increased over time. The Flynn effect is the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day. However, when the new test subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average scores are significantly above 100. |
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| His research on the brain size gene, MCPH1, led to the hypothesis that an archaic homo sapiens lineage such as the Neanderthals might have contributed to the recent development of the human brain.[2] His research also suggested that newly arisen variants of two brain size genes, ASPM and MCPH1, might have been favored by positive natural selection in the recent human history.[3] This research provoked controversy due to the finding that the positively selected variants of these genes had spread to higher frequencies in some parts of the world than in others (for ASPM, it is higher in Europe and surrounding regions than other parts of the world; for MCPH1, it is higher outside sub-Saharan Africa than inside).[4] He has advocated the moral position that human genetic diversity should be embraced and celebrated as among humanity's great assets.[5] |
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| Hypothesized link between genes and political behavior |
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| Researchers named Fowler and Dawes assumed that there were two genes that could predict voter turnout: MAOA and 5HTT. But researchers named Charney and English proved this wrong, because the study had too many flaws. Once the flaws were corrected, it showed that you could not link genes to voter turn-out. |
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| Hypothesized link between violence and the y chromosome ( and xyy studies) |
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| Witkin et al.(1976) investigated criminality and violence in XYY men. 42% of xyy men had been convicted of a criminal offense, only 9% of xy men were convicted, BUT xxy men were ALSO more likely to commit a crime. Having an extra chromosome seemed to be a factor , rather than just having an extra y chromosome. |
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| Proposed associations between aggression and MAOA alleles, testosterone, and serotonin |
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-MAOA ( Monoamine oxidase A) gene is located on the X chromosome .
- Brunner et al. (1993): rare allele study where ppl who had this MAOA allele. But having this allele really doesn't say much though. Rod Lea characterizes the MAOA gene as the "warrior gene" in the Maori. |
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| What leads to more criminality than any allele or other factor could ever lead to ? |
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| Childhood maltreatment and poverty leads to more criminality more than anything. |
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| Testosterone ( in terms of links to aggression/behavior) |
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| - Increased testosterone is correlated with increased aggression. BUT , aggression is not always associated with high testosterone. For ex: hunter-gatherers. Engaging in aggressive behavior leads to an elevated testosterone level. |
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| Serotonin ( in terms of aggression/behavior) |
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| Serotonin has been linked to happiness and a lack of aggression. |
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| Rape As An Adaptation ( evidence For/Against) |
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