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When: 1498-1515
Who: King of France
Why: Into fun and games, relied on prime minister George d'Amboise. 1512 invaded Italy, but by 1513 was chased out. Set up a system of government in which the king became very dependent on his prime minister to support him. He ruled at a time when France was going toward supremacy over the rest of Europe |
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When: 1515-1547
Who: King of France
Why: Was more successful than Louis XII by winning the Battle of Marignano against Emperor Maximilian's troops in 1515. Managed to get the Concordant of Bologna from Pope Leo X, which allowed the Kings of France to nominate all French Bishops. Francis was the "top dog" and was another key figure in France's road to dominating Europe and exercising power over the papacy. |
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When: 1509-1547
Who: King of England
Why: Became king of England after his brother Arthur died, and his miserly NNSM father Henry VII married him to Arthur's widow Catherine of Aragon. He was into fun and games and was a pseudo-intellectual. Thomas Wolsey was his prime minister and in 1513 he hassled Louis XII and had a daughter Mary in 1514. In 1521 he gained the title defender of the faith by supporting the Church against the reformaton. He then fell in love in 1522 with Anne Boleyn, and interpreted Leviticus 18:16 to say he could get a divorce. He represents the feeling that kings had to forward their dynasty, and the status that kings felt they had over the popes, so much so that Henry VIII felt he could seek out his own divorce. He got so impatient to get a divrce that Wolsey asked Archbishop of Canterbury Clement to okay it. However, Charles' troops took Rome and captured the Pope, which made the Pope side with Catherine of Aragon, as she was the aunt of Charles. Henry got so angry that the Pope said no that in 1529 he fired Wolsey, set up the "Church of England", took over monasteries, divorced Catherine and married Anne Boelyn (the mother of Queen Elizabeth), had four more wives and eventually had Edward VI. |
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| Charles V (Charles of Hapsburg) |
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Definition
When: 1500 onward
Who: Holy Roman Emperor and leader of Spain, much of the new world, Franche-Comté and the low Countries
Why: In 1519 he unites Austria, Spain, the Spanish New World, the Low Countries, Franche-Comté and the Holy Roman Empire under one crown. He believed that God had put him where he was, and made it a big goal to fight off the Turks. However, France, princes in HRE and pope felt threatened that he would create a universal monarchy. He was the first leader to have to battle against the Reformation, which proved to be a losing fight. In 1521 at the Diet of Worms he condemned Martin Luther, but an Elector named Frederick the Wise of Saxony saved Luther from the Emperor. He then fought Francis I and captured him at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, forced him to sign a treaty and let him go. Francis, however, went back on his word and renewed war. Then the German princes in the HRE began the idea of "cuius regio eius religio", giving them the right to choose religion in their own territories. Suleiman the Magnificent forced the Hungarians to give their lands over to Charles to protect them, which gave him another problem. Finally, Pope Clement VII supported Francis I and gave Charles another person to fight against. He became so exhaused by the problems he faced that in 1555 he abdicated and divided his possessions between his son Philip II (who received Spain, Italy, Low Countries and the New World) and brother Ferdinand (who received Austira, Bohemia, 1/3 of Hungary and the title of Holy Roman Emperor). He represents the power and massive Empires which were created due to dynastic mergers, as well as the overstretching of a leader's resources. Finally, the religious conundrum through which Europe was suffering are an important part of Charles V's reign. DISRUPTION OF STATES. |
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When: 1520-1566
What: Ottoman Sultan
Why: In 1526, conquered most of Hungary which led the rest of Hungary and Bohemia to turn themselves over to the protection of Charles V. He represents the power which the Ottoman Sultans had and the pressures which they were putting on Europe and the political strife caused by such a disturbance |
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When: 1547-1553
Who: King of England
Why: Son of Henry VIII, who solidifed England into being a Protestant state. Represents the switch of England from Catholic to fully Protestant, just for it to return to being Catholic and Protestant later, sparking much religious tension in the country. DISRUPTION OF STATES. |
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When: 1553-1558
Who: Queen of England
Why: Also known as Bloody Mary who started a religious war against the Protestants (as she was the Catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII). Represents the constant religious switches within Europe, and particularly England, at the time as well as the bloody side of European religious politics. DISRUPTION OF STATES. |
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When: 1500s
Who: Queen of France/Mother of King of France
Why: After her husband Henry II died, she tried to maintain order for young Francis II, who died quickly, and then Charels IX. She was hassled by Admiral de Coligny and Henry of Navarre, who were Huguentos. Coligny convinced Charles IX to wage war against Spain. Catherine then decided to arrange a marriage between her daughter and Henry of Navarre, then massacred Coligny and the Huguenot guests, except Henry, at "St. Bartholomew's Massacre". She represents high religious tensions within France and the drastic disruption of states caused by Protestantism and religious dissent. |
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When: 1558-1603
Who: Queen of England
Why: Daughter of Henry VIII who tried to mantain the middle-road Church of England. She did not get along well with the Puritans or the Catholics, who were out to kill her so that the Catholic Mary Stuart would take office. She successfully ruled England completely on her own, and refused marriage so that she would not be required to share her power. She eventually killed Mary Stuart so that a Protestant would take the throne after her rule. Also known as the "Virgin Queen", though Sonnino thinks she wasn't. She was the leader of England during the time when the Spanish Armada attempted to invade under Philip II, as well. After the defeat of the Spanish, England was on its way to becoming the primary naval power in the world. |
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When: 1555-1598
Who: King of Spain
Why: Overshadowed everyone else at this time, and saw himself as "Mr. Catholic". He tried to surpress Calvinism in the Low Countries, so he sent the Duke of Alva in 1567 to crush the rebellion and succeeded. He also sent out a fleet which destroyed a Turkish fleet at Lepanto. He was always supporting and plotting with the local feisty Catholics all over Europe. However, he ended up having Alva levy a new tax in the Low Countries in 1572, which led to a revolt led by the Calvinist William of Orange. Elizabeth supported the rebels, so he sent a huge navy to pick up General Farnese and invade England. However, a storm ruined the navy there and led to a huge military loss for Spain. Then Henry of Navarre became the first Bourbon King of France and renewed war against Spain for a short while. In 1508 Phillip II died. He represents the disruption of states caused by Protestantism and other movements in Europe at the time, and the idea of "The Elusive Hegemony", that no one king or nation could hold control over Europe for a long time because they would become overstretched. |
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Definition
When: c.1469-1536
Who: Christian Humanist
Why: Wrote "The Praise of Folly", and was a Church reformer who was interested in cleaning up abuses and wanted a reemphasis, not on the whole Bible but of the ethical message of Jesus. He is a prime example of Christian reformers at this time who sought to clear the Church of its abuses but did not want to separate from the Church all together in Pre-Protestant Reformation Europe. |
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When: 1478-1535
Who: English Christian Humanist
Why: Author of "Utopia", and was a Church reformer who was interested in cleaning up abuses and wanted reemphasis not on the whole Bible but of the ethical message of Jesus. He is a prime example of Christian reformers at this time who sought to clear the church of its abuses but did not want to separate from the Church all together in Pre-Protestant Reformation Europe. |
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When: 1485-15
Who: Augustinian Monk/Founder of Protestantism
Why: Born into the middle of the Church's problems; from Thuringia of an ambitious peasant family, and went to Erfurt University to became a monk in 1505, after he was almost killed in a thunderstorm and felt God spared him. He ended up becoming a Professor of Theology at Wittenberg University in Saxony. He became very moved by the passage from Romans 1:17 "The just shall live by his faith", and concluded that it didn't matter if one felt sinful, because God saved you just for trying hard and having faith in Jesus. Then John Tetzel showed up in 1517 selling papal indulgences (guaranteed to get souls out of purgatory) and Luther got mad about this and posted his 95 Theses on a Church door, creating a stir but not necessarilly opposing the Church. However, he then went on to believe in a priesthood of believers and the "real presence", thus challenging the Church's monopoly on salvation. In 1520 Leo X and in 1521 Charles V at the Diet of Worms condemned him, but Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, hid him and he began to get "grass root" support. He represents the Protestant Reformation and a major challenge to the Church's legitimacy and power over the body of believers in Christ. He founded the belief in "sola scriptura", or that a Christian's beliefs should be based not on tradition and scripture but the Bible alone. Finally, he also shows how movements spread throughout Europe without any official support from the governments or Church (in fact, in complete opposition to what they wanted) and the religious confusion of Europe at the time. |
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When: 1484-1531
Who: Swiss Protestant Reformer
Why: Came out of the Bible with the doctrine of predestination, or that God decides beforehand if you will have faith or not and "symbolic presence", or that the bread and wine are symbols for body and blood. This enfuriated Luther who did not believe in freedom of interpretation. He represents the Protestant fervor and opening interpretations to Christian texts from a point of view other than that of the Church councils and the growth of conflicting religious viewpoints throughout Europe. |
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When: 1509-1564
Who: Protestant reformer from Zurich
Why: Son of French magistrate, believed in Zwingli's ideas on predestination and symbolic presence, and fled from France in the time of Francis I, and ended up in Geneva, Switzerland. When there, he set up a city church run by a consistory who made sure everyone behaved properly. Calvin's idea of predestination is easy to misread, because a good Calvinist will trust in God, follow his commandments, force sinners to follow God's commandments and leave saving to God's mercy. Significant because Calvinists are huge figures in the disruption of states; Huguenots, for instance, were followers of Calvin. |
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When: 1491-1556
Who: Spanish soldier turned priest
Why: Established the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in 1545, based on submission to the pope and military-type discipline. They went around Europe trying to bring "heretics" back into the fold of the Church, usually through education classes and missionary work. They are associated with the movement of reform in the Church which was simultaneous with the Protestant Reformation known as the Counter-Reformation. |
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When: 1535-1549
Who: Pope
Why: Called the Council at Trent in 1545, which he managed to control. It went out of its way to state Catholic doctrines so as to set them apart from Protest ones, preventing any compromise. This council officially divided Protestant and Catholics within the eyes of Church doctrine, and is thus associated in this movement toward religious fragmentation in European society. |
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When: 1473-1543
Who: Polish Catholic priest/scientist
Why: Suggested that one would need a lot less circles to describe planetary motions if one put the sun at the center. In his "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" he outlined his beliefs. He was a fan of the simplest explanation possible, though he could not answer the Aristotelian physics question, " if the earth revolves around the sun, what holds both up in the middle of space". He was ultimately persecuted by the Church, and he is associated with the movement toward a heliocentric world view and a shift in scientific thought. |
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When: 1561-1626
Who: English philosopher and statesman
Why: Assailed by doubts on all sides, more and more European intellectuals were coming to the conclusion that mankind had come to a dead end in its quest for truth. Bacon suggested that men should just give up on trying to build systems and merely try to collect facts. He thought this was the only way to piece the world back together. He is associtated with the "Great Restoration" and, again, another shift in scientific thought during this time period. He is a prime example of confused intellectuals in the realm of science at this time. |
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When: 1610-1648
Who: Regent of France (Mother of Louis XIII)
Why: Saw confrontation between old nobles of the sword and former bourgeois who had bought judgeships in courts (parlements) and thus become nobles of robe, complicated by armed Huguenot minority. Groups forced her to call the Estates-General in 1614, but the opposition was disunited. Stands as a prime example of the situation of France and other European powers with rapid changes in the make-up of their nobility and wealthy as well as the havoc being caused by the various religious minorities throughout all of Europe, after the Protestant Reformation. |
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When: 1610-1643
Who: King of France
Why: After the mess caused under Marie de Medici, he teamed up with Cardinal Richelieu and agreed with but kept under control the nobles of the sword. He also hated, but has to keep around, nobles of robe, and disarmed but had to "tolerate" the Huguenots. He did so in order to mantain enough stability in order to help keep the Hapsburgs in check. He is signficant in that, at the end of this calling of the Estates-General, he and the people of France end up with a "relatively absolute" monarch, which began a movement throughout Europe towards said form of government. |
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When: 1625-1649
Who: King of England/Scotland
Why: England and Scotland were united under James I and Charles I, beginning the new Stuart dynasty. There was confrontation between old nobles and gentry favoring a strong royal power and the Church of England vs. yuppy nobles, gentry and merchants favoring Parliament and puritanism. Between 1629-1641 Charles and Archbishop Laud tried to imitate France, and rule without Parliament. However, in 1640 Scotland revolted and forced them to call two parliaments dominated by yuppies and puritans, leading to Civil War. |
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When: 1648
What: Treaty (idiot)
Why: Ended the Thirty Year's War. Marked the final failure by the Hapsburgs or by anybody esle to unify the HRE. It showed that Europe would never be religiously united again by force. France gained Alsace, and Sweden won Pomerania. The Hapsburgs had to recognize the independence of the Dutch and Swiss. Finally, after c.150 years of Spanish and Austria dominating Europe, they were exhausted and Spain was still warring against France. |
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When: 1648-1667
Who: King of France
Why: In 1648 Louis XIV was 10. During the war Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin were hassled by the parlement and Prince de Condé, who enganged in a futile revolt called the Fronde which collapsed by 1652. Louis felt that the Fronde proved that men looked after their own self-interest and were incapable of ruling themselves. Thus democracies, republics, limited monarchies were imperfect. Even a prime minister was imperfect. He believed that only a monarch was perfect since his self-interest was in the interest of the state. He eventually married Maria Theresa of Spain after Mazarin organized it. When Mazarin died in 1661 Louis began his personal reign, with no prime minister, though he had a small council. He did not tax any nobles and, if they behaved, welcomed them at the court. He did not deprive nobles of robe of their place in parlements, but if they behaved behaved let them be given to their children or sold. He further retained the old instutions but controlled them with new officials (intendants). He had a splendid court, and started calling himself "sun-king" and in five years his prime minister Colbert doubled royal income. However, Louis was power hungry and wanted a reputation as a warrior. He wanted to kick the Hapsburgs when they were down, but couldn't find any good pretext to fight anyone. He found his pretext in Spanish Low Countries' Law of Devolution, which stated that the daughter of the first marriage (his wife) inherits private property prior to son by second marriage (Carlos II, King of Spain). THe HRE was too weak to oppose him. Louis invaded the Spanish Low Countries in 1667 succesfully but John de Witt, the leader of the Dutch, Charles II and Swedes formed a Triple alliance which asked Louis to stop. He did and signed the Treay of Aix-La-Chapelle in 1668. However, Louis still wanted to conquer all the Sp. Low Countries and was succsessful, but the Dutch flooded their fields and put themselves under young William III of Orange and lynched John de Witt and his brother. Louis had to withdraw, England abandoned him, and Spain, Emperor and HRE joined on the side of the Dutch. Louis eventually ran out of money and had to sign the Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678, getting more but not all of the Spanish Low Countries. Louis now got frustrated and set up courts (Chambers of Reunion) which would authorize his army to annex little pieces of land. He supressed the Huguenots and revoked the Edict of Nantes. He was now hated and feared throughout Europe, yet he had not upset its stability. In 1685 he was at the height of power, but was getting older and more tired, widowed and living with a prude, remodeling Versailles and was faced by defensive alliance between England and the Dutch Republic and by the League of Augsburg (defensive alliance between Emperor Leopold, Spain, Sweden, and some German princes). Louis thought in 1688 that if he attacked the HRE, the League of Augsburg would dissolve and it would discourage William of Orange from invading England. Louis attacked the HRE, but William still invaded. Louis' attack on HRE got bogged down and he faced a "grand alliance" of the Emperor, Spain, England, Dutch and German princes. He had to raise taxes and build up the army to 400,000 men, which fought enemies to a standstill, but the nobles started to criticize his absolutism. Meanwhile, Leopold was conquering all of Hungary from the Turks. In 1697 Louis and his enemies, both exhausted, made eace at Ryswick, but for Louis the war was at the most a tie. He had to give up a few territories, accept William III as King of England, and watch Leopold expand into Hungary. Thus he had not prevented two great powers from emerging. |
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When: died in 1658
Who: "Lord Protector" of England
Why: Took control over England after the revolt that took place under Charles I, and beheaded the former king. The yuppy nobles and gentry did not like the control that Cromwell exercized over the masses, but he managed to keep everyone in line. After he died in 1658, a power vacuum was left in England, which was later filled by the restored king. |
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When: Took power in 1660
Who: King of England
Why: Was put into power by one Cromwell's own soldiers in 1660 and was known as a "charming playboy". Part of the "support your local monarch" movement. He sneakily, however, became a Catholic and wanted to weaken both the parliament and the Church of England, with the help of Louis XIV. |
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When: 1685-1688
Who: King of England
Why: An open Catholic that tried to advance Catholicism, but Anglican nobles scared to revolt, preferred to wait for his death since next in line was his Protestant daughter Mary, who was married to William of orange. However, in 1688, James' Catholic second wife had a son, leading English nobles to ask William of Orange for help. He was driven out by William during the Glorious Revolution in 1688. |
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When: 1564-1642
Who: Italian Catholic who was interested in physics
Why: Constructed a telescope and saw craters on the moon, the two moons of Jupiter and sunspots. This suggested that the moon and sun were made of material, and that the universe had more than one center of motion. Went on to propound theory of intertia, ie, vacuum exists, bodies in vacuum either rest or move in circles. He ended up being condemned by the Church. |
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When: 1571-1630
Who: German Protestant Mathematician
Why: Pro-Copernicus and claimed that the planets moved in ellipses, covered equal areas in equal times. Both suggest that Copernicus was right, math is key and the nature of world is mathematical |
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When: 1596-1650
Who: French student of the Jesuits
Why: Dissatisfied wit intellectual confusion of his time, but excited by math, "innate ideas", hoped to use them as key to reunifying knowledge. Did so in his "Discourse on Method" (1637); begin with doubt, deducing his own existence (cogito ergo sum) and that of a perfect God, concluding that man's mind (soul) is free and that world is a machine. |
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When: 1588-1679
Who: English fan of Galileo
Why: Interested in combining physics with political theory. In his "Leviathan" (1651) he theorizes about a social vacuum (state of nature) in which men are in a state of war so miserable that they make a truce (social contract) and irrevocably put themselves under the power of a state (Leviathan). He tells men that if they revolt, they will merely reestablsih chaos, as in the English Civil Wars. |
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When: 1627-1704
Who: French Bishop
Why: Known as one of the "New Scholastics". Wrote "Politics drawn from the Holy Scripture" in 1670, which combined Hobbes' theory that the state of nature is a state of war with passages from the Bible supposedly justifying the divine right of kings. |
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When: 1638-1715
Who: French priest-mathematician/ New "Scholastic"
Why: Felt that Descartes fits perfectly with revelation, and tried to become a new Thomas Aquinas. In his "Search for Truth" (1674) he argues that we see things best by deduction, because our soul is the way to God, while our senses deceive us because they belong to our sinful body. |
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When: 1634-1704
Who: English physician/Empricist
Why: Associated with the Empirical process. Began this process with his "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (from 1687) that argued against innate ideas and said that man is born with a tabula raza, or blank mind, and that all knowledge is born out of the senses. He felt that experiment proved that world was mathematical and created by God. In his "Second Treatise of Government" (1689) he used empiricism to state that man is in a state of nature and that his reason controls his passions, and that everyone has natural rights to life, liberty and property. Men must make a social contract to preserve these rights and they can revolt if they are violated (as was in the "Glorious Revolution". There was a two-folded rationalism; that reason can understand the world and that reason can control passions. He believed that God created the world but man can understand it and revelation is superfluous, making him a deist. John Locke and Isaac Newton were founders of the Enlightenment and began "modern ideology". |
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When: 1642-1727
Who: English scientist
Why: Wrote in his "Principia", from 1687, that he used empricial method in improving Galileo's law of inertia (bodies either rest or continue in a straight line), discovering a force called gravity (all bodies attract each other), which worked according to specific mathematical laws (direct proportion to their mass and indirect proportion to their distance) and explained all motion everywhere. Founder of the Enlightenment and "Modern" ideology. |
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Term
| "Enlightenment World View" |
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Definition
When:1685 onwards
What: "Revolution" in Thinking
Why: Had tremendous implications; it said that if the mind is a tabula raza, man is not tainted by sin and is perfectible. The empirical method can CONTINUALLY discover new physical and moral laws. It was a double whammy in rationalism, that reason can understand world, and that reason can control passions, and tehy invent the idea of progress and that God created the world but man can understand it, therefore making revelation superfluous (deism). This is the start of "Modern" ideology. |
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When: 1670-1685
What: A "synthesis of new science and old religion"
Why: Included such thinkers as Benigne Bossuet and Nicolas Malebranche, and supported the idea that deduction is both logical and spiritually in tune with God, because our souls are what guide our deduction, unlike our perceptions. |
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