-a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences

-carries over form one generation to the next

-supported by a systme of cultural beliefs that defines certain kinds of inequality as just

caste system

class system

-are based on birth (ascription)

-permit little or not social mobility

-shape a person's entire life, including occupation and marriage.

-common in traditional, agarian socites.

-based on both birth (ascription) and meritocracy (individual achievement) 

-permit some social mobility 

-common in modern industrial and postindustrial societies.

-economic class

-social status and prestige

-power

-conflict exists between people at various positions on a multidimensional hierarchy of socioeconomic status (SES)

-micro level analysis that explores how inequality shapes everyday life

-explains that we size people up by looking for clues to their social standing.

-income

-wealth

-power

-occupational prestige

-schooling

-family

-5% of the population

-most members of the upper-upper class or "old rich" inherited their wealth; the lower-upper class, or "new rich" work at high-paying jobs.

40%-$45% of the population

-people in the upper-middle class have significant wealth;average-middles have less prestige , so white collar work, and most attend college.

20% of the population

-most people in the lower class lack financial security due to low income; may live below the poverty line; half do not complete high school

-goverment classifies 46.2 million poeple-15.1% of the population-as poor

-about 50% of the poor are under the age of 25

-about 70% of the poor families are headed by women

-fiminization poverty

-about 45% of the heads of poor families are among the "working poor" who worked at least part time but do not earn enough to lift a family out of poverty and above the povertly line.

-estimates place the number of people who are homeless at some time over the course of a year between 1.6 and 3 million.

-the fact that almost half of the U.S populaiton is either poor or low income suggests that society more than individual traits is the main cause of poverty.

-blame individuals: the culture of poverty thesis states that poverty is caused by shortcomings in the poor themselves

-blame society: poverty is caused by society's unequal distribution of wealth and lack of good jobs 

- in recent decades, income inequality has increased

-surverys show most people think income differences are too large

-many people also are concerned that hard work may not be enough to get ahead.

-contain 23% of the world's people

-recieve 75% of global income

-have a high standard of living based on advanced technology

-produce enough economic goods to enable their people to lead comfortable lives.

-include 72 nations,among them the U.S,Canada,Mexico,Argentina,Chile,the nations of Western Europe,Isreal,Saudi Arabia,Russian Federation,Japan,South Korea,Malaysia and Australia

-contain 61% of the world's people

-recieve 23% of global income

-have a standard of living about average for the world as a whole

-include 70 nations, among them the nations of Eastern Europe,Peru,Brazil,Namibia,Egypt,Indonesia,India, and the people's republic of China

-contain 17% of the world's people

-recieve 1% of global income

-have a low standard of living dure to limited industrial technology

-include 53 nations, generally in Central and East Africa and Asia, among them Chad,the democratic Republic of the Congo,Ethiopia, and Bangladesh

-worldwide, about 925 million poeple are at risk due to poor nuttrition

-about 9 million people die each year from disease caused by poverty

-throughout the world, women are more likely than men to be poor. Gender bias is strongest in poor societies

-lack of tecnhology limits production

-high birth rates produce rapid population increase

-tradtional cultural patterns make people resist change

-extreme social inequality distributes wealth very unequally

-extreme gender inequality limits the oppurtunities of women

-colonialism allowed some nations to exploit other nations,neocolonialism continues today

-traditional stage

-take-off stage

-drive to technological maturity

-high mass consumption

-that rich nations can to help poor nations by providing technology to control population size, increases food production, and expand industrial and information economy output and by providing foreign aid to pay for new economic development.

-rapid economic development in Asia shows that affluence is within reach of other nations of the world.

-rich nations do little to help poor countries and benifit form the status quo. Low living standards in much of Africa and South America result form the policies of rich nations.

-because rich nations, including the United States, control the global economy,many poor nations struggle to support their people and cannot follow the path to development taken by rich countries centuries ago.

-maintains that global wealth and poverty were created by the colonial process begginning 500 years ago that overdeveloped rich nations and underdeveloped poor nations.

-this capitalist process continues today in the form of neocolonialism-economic explotation of poor nations by multinational corporations.

-core

-semiperiphery

-periphery

-three key factors: export-oriented economies, a lack of industrial capacity, and foreign debt-make poor countries dependent on rich nations and prevent their economic development.

-radical reform of the entire world economy is needed so that it operates in the interests of the majority of people.

-the theory overlooks the tenfold increase in global wealth since 1950 and that the world's poorest countries have had weak, not strong, ties to rich countries

-rich nations are not responsible for cultural patterns and political corruption that block economic development in many poor nations.

-gender is about differences because societies give more power and other resources to men and to women,gender is an importan dimension of social stratification

-sexism is built into the operation of social institutions.

-woman are now in the paid labor force, but 39% hold clerical or service jobs

-women earn 77% as much as men

-gender differences in earnings results from differences in jobs,differences in family responsibilities,discrimination

-most unpaid housework performed by woman,whether or not they hold jobs outside the home

-pregnancy and raising small children keep many woman out of the labor force at a time when their male peers are making important career gains.

-woman now earn 59% of all associate bachelors degrees

-women make up 47% of law school students and are an increasing share of graduates in professions traditionally dominated by men,including medicine and business administration

-almost no women had any elected office in the U.S

-number of women in politics has increased significantly

-vast majority of elected officals ,especially at the national level, are men

-women make up only about 14% of U.S military personnel

-preindustrial societies,distinctive roles for males and females refelt biological differences between the sexes

-industrial socieites, marked gender inequality becomes dysfuncional and gradually decreases

-

-individuals use gender as one element of their personal performance as they socially construct reality through everyday interactions

-gender plays a part in shaping almost all our everyday experiences

-

-genter is an important dimension of social inequality and social conflict

-gender inequality benefits men and disadvantages women

-tied gender stratification to the rise of private property and a class hierachy

-marriage and the family are strategies by which men control their property through control of the sexuality of the woman. 

-capitalism exploits everyone by paying men low wages and assigning women the task of maintaing the home

-investigates the interplay of race,class,and gender, factors that combine to cause special disadvantages to some categories of people

-woman of color encounter greater social disadvantages than white women and earn much less than white men

-intersection theory highlights the ways particular dimensions of difference in woman's lives combine in a mulit-layered system, creating unique disadvantage for various categories of women

-endorses the social equality of women and men and oppose patriachy and sexism

-seeks to eliminate violence against women

-advocates giving women control over their reproduction

-liberal feminism:seeks equal opportunity for both sexes within the existing society

-socialist feminism: claims that gender equality will come about by replacing capitalism with socialism

-radical feminism: seeks to eliminate the concept of gender itself and to create an egalitarian and gender-free society.

-refers to socially constructed categories based on biological traits a society defines as important

-meaning and importance of race vary form place to place over time

-societies use racial categories to rank people in a hierchy, giving some people more money,power,prestige than others

-in the past, scientists created three broad categories-Caucasoids,monogloids,and negroids-but there are no biologically pure races

-refers to socially constructed categories based on cultural traits a society defines as important

-ethnicity reflects common ancestors,language,and religion

-importance of ethnicity varies from place to place and over time

-people choose to play up or play down their ethnicity

-societies may or may not set categories of people apart based on differences in ethnicity

-the social distance scale is one measure of prejudice

-one type of prejudice is the steroetype, a simplified description applied to every person in some category

-racism, a very destructive type of prejudice, asserts that one race is innately superior or inferior to another. 

-scapegoat theory:claims that prejudice results from fusteration among poeple who are disadvantaged

-authoritarian personality theory:claims that prejudice is a personality trait of certain individuals, especially those with little education and those raised by cold and demanding parents

-culture theory:claims that prejudice is rooted in culture;we learn to feel greater social distance from some categories of people

-conflict theory:claims that prejudice is a tool used by powerful people to divide and control the population

-treating various categories of people unequally

-prefudice refers to attitudes; discriminaiton involves actions

-institutional prejudice and discriminaiton:bias built into the operation of society's institutions,including schools,hospitals,the police,and the workplace.

-prejudice and discrimination perpetuate themselves in a vicous circle,resulting in social disadvantage that fuels additional prejudice and discrimination

-that the racial and ethnic categories, although distinct, have roughly equal social standing

-U.S society is not pluralistic in that all racial and ethnic categories do not have equal social standing

-process by which minorities gradually adopt the patterns of the dominant culture

-involves changes in dress,language,religion,values,and freinds

-a stradegy to escape prejudice and discrimination and to achieve upward society mobility

-some categories of people have assimilated more than others

-physical and social separation of categories of people

-some segregation is voluntary,majorites usually segregate minorities by excluding them from neighborhoods,schools, and occupations

-De jure segregation is segrattion by law

-hypersegregation means having little social contact with poeple beyond the local communityu

-is the systematic killing of one category of people by another

-examples are extermination of Jews by Nazis and the killing of western-leaning people in Cambodia by Pol Pot

-native americans

-white anglo-saxon protestants

-african americans

-asian americans

-hispanic americans or latinos

-arab americans

-white ethnic americans

-primary sector

-secondary sector

-tertiary sector

-draws raw materials form the natural enviroment

-is of greatest importance in low-income nations

-transforms raw materials into manufactured goods

-is a significant share of the enconomy, in low-,middle, and high-income nations

-produces services rather than goods 

-is the largest sector in low-,middle-,and high-income countries

-greater productivity

-higher overal standard of living

-greater income inequality

-freedom to act according to self-interest

-less productivity

-lower overall standard of living

-less income inequality

-freedom from basic want

-larges corporations, which are conglomerates,account for most corporate assets and profits

-many large corporations operate as multinationals, producing and distributing products in nations around the world. 

-agricultural work represents only 1.7% of jobs

-blue-collar work has declined to less than 20% of jobs

-white-collar work represents about 80% of jobs

-6.7% of U.S workers are self-employed

-many professions fall into this category but most self-employed people have blue collar jobs

-unemployment has many causes, including the operation of the economy itself

-at the end of 2011, 8.9% of the country's labor force was unemployed 

-at highest risk for unemployment are young people and aftrican americans

-major social institution by which a society distributes power and organizes decision making

-preindustrial socieites rely on tradition to transform power into authority.Traditional authority is closely linked to kinship

-as societies industrialize, tradition gives ways to rationality.Rational-legal authority underlies the operation of bureaucratic offices as well as law

-at any time, however, some individuals transform power into authority through charisma. Charismatic authority is linked to extradordinary personal qualites

-is common in agrarian societies;leaderships is based on kinship

-political spectrum

-special interest groups

-voter apathy

-revolution:radically transforms a political system

-terrorism:employs violence in the pursuit of political goals and is used by a group against a much more powerful enemy

-development and spreak of nuclear weapons have increased the threat of global catastrophe

-Worl peace is ultimately depends on resolving the tensions and conflicts that fuel militarism

-all societies are built on kinship. 

-the family varies across cultures and over time

-high income nations (U.S) have monogoumous

-low income nations have polygamy. 

-global perspective, patrilocality is most common but industrial societies favor neolocality,few socieities have matrilocal residence

-industrial societies use bilateral discent;preindustrial societies are either patrilineal or matrilineal

-identifies many family functions that help society operate smoothly

-socialization of the young

-regualtion of sexual activity

-social placement

-providing material and emotion support

how does the social-conflict theory and feminist theory have to do with familes?

-one-parent families,cohabitation,gay and lesbian couples,and singlehood have become common in recent years

-many gay men and lesbians form long-lasting relationships and increasingly, are becoming parents

-courship based on romantic love is central to mate selection in the U.S

-arranged marriages are common in preindustrial societies 

-family size decreased over time as industrialization increases the costs of raising children

-fewer children are born as more women go to school and join the labor force

-many middle-ages couples care for aging parents, and many older couples are active grandparents

-the final transition in marriage begins with the death of a spouse

-divorce

--4 out of 10 marriages end in divorce

--remariage creates blended families that include children from previous marriages

-family violence

--widespread problem

--most adult who abuse family members were mostly likely abused themself by another family member 

-major social institution based on setting the sacred apart from the profane

-religion is grounded in faith rather than scientific evidence, and people express their religious beliefs through various rituals

-religion unites people

-promotes social cohesion

-gives meaning and purpose in life

-celebration of the power of our society

-socially constructed religious beliefs

-likely to seek religious meaning when faced with life's uncertainties and disruptions

-that religion justifies the status quo

-religion supports inequality and discourages change toward a more just and equal society

-churches: two categories are state churches and denominations

-sects: result of cultrual divistion and are marked by charismatic leadership and members's suspicion of the larger society

-cults: religious organizations based on new and unconventional beliefs and practices

-in opposition to Marx, that religion can encourage social change

-he showed how Calvinist beliefs promoted the rise of industrial capitalism

-secularization: a decline in the importance of the supernatural and sacred

-civil religion: takes the form of a quassi-religious partiotism that ties people to their society

-spirtiritual seekers: part of the new age movement, which pursues spiritual development outside conventional religious organization

-fundamentalims: opposes religious accommodation to the world, interprets religious texts,literally, and rejects religous diversity

-highlights major functions of schooling, inlcuding socialization, cultural innovation, social integration, and the placement of people in the social hierarchy.

-Latent functions of schooling include providing child care and building social networks

links schooling to the hierarchy involving class, race,and gender

-violence permeates many schools, especially in poor neighborhoods

-the bureacratic character of schools foster high dropout rates and student pasivity.

-declining academic standards are refected in today's lower average scores on acheivement tests, the functional literacy of a significant proportion of high school graduates and grade inflation.

-  did not believe in public eduaction because they wanted to give their child a strongly religious upbringing. 

-advocates today point to the poor performance of public schools

-children with mental or physical disabilites have historically been school in special classes

-mainstreaming afords them broader opportunites and exposes all children to a more diverse student population. 

-adults represent a growing proportion of students in the United States.

-most older learners are women who are engaged in job-related study.

-about 400,000 teaching vacancies exist in the U.S each year due to low salaries,frustration, retirement,and rising enrollments and class size. 

-to fix this shortage, many school districts are recruiting teachers from abroad 

-personal well-being depends on a society's level of technology and its distribution of resources. 

-A society's culture shapes definitions of health

-cigarette smoking, which is the greatest preventable cause of death

-eating disorders and obesity

-increases in sexually transmitted dieseases

-ethical dilemmas associated with advancing medical technology and the right to die.

-more than 80% of U.S children born today will live to at least age sixty-five

-throughout life course, women have better health than men, and people of high social position enjoy better health than the poor.

-considers illness to be dysfunctional because it reduces people's ability to perform their roles.

-Role analysis explains that society responds to illness by defining roles:

---sick role

---physician's role

-people attach to health illness, and medicare. These meanings are socially constructed by people in everdya interaction:

--response to illness is not always based on medical facts

--how people define a medical situation may affect how they feel

-unequal distribution of health and medical care. Marxist theory criticizes the U.S medical establishment for:

--its overreliance on drugs and surgery

--dominance of the profit motive

--overemphasis on the biological rather than the social causes of illness.

-with industrailization, health improved greatly in Western Europe and North American in the 19th century

-century ago, infectionious diseases were leading killers;today, most people in the U.S die in old age of chronic illneses such as heart disease, cancer, or stroke

-poor nations suffer from inadequate sanitation,hunger, and other problems linked to poverty

-life expectancy in low-income nations is about twenty-three years less than in the U.S; in the poorest nations, more than one in four people die before reaching the age of 20

-health care was historically a family concern but with industrialization became the responsibility of trained specialists

-model of scientific medicine is the foundation of the U.S meical establishment

-socialist define medical care as a right;goverments offer basic care equally to everyone

-capitalist societies view medical care as a commodity to be purchased, although most capitalist governments help pay for medical care through socialized medicine or national health insurance. 

-most people have private or government health insurance, but about 50 million people in the U.S do not have medical insurance

-the 2010 health care reforms are a recent effort to move to the U.S closter to the goal of having everyone covered by health insurance. 

- fertility is the incidence of childbearing in a country's populaiton

-demographers describe fertility using the crude birth rate

-is the incidence of death in a country's population

-demographers measure morality using both the crude death rate and the infant morality rate

-rich nations grow almost as much from immigration as from natural increase

-poorer nations grow almost entirely from natural increase

-demographic transition theory: a thesis that links populaition patterns to a society's level of technological development

-zero population growth:the rate of reproduction that maintains population at a steady level. 

-appearance of cities about 10,000 years ago

-preindustrial cities have low-rise buildings;narrow, winding streets;and personal social ties

-started about 1750's as the industrial revolution propelled rapid urban growth in Europe

-physical form of cities changed as planners created wide,regular streets to allow for more trade

-the emphasis on commerce, as well as the increasing size of cities, made urban life more impersonal. 

-gemeinschaft:typical of the rural village, joins people in what amounts to a single primary group

-gesellschaft: typical of the modern city, described individuals motivated by their own needs rather than the well-being of the community. 

-agreed with Tonnies thinking

-claimed that urbanites do not lack social bonds;the bais of social soldarity simply differs in the two settings. 

-transformation of culture adn social institutions over time

-every society canges all the time, sometimes faster,sometimes more slowly

-social change often generates controversy

-invention produces new objects,ideas,and social patterns

-discovery occurs when people take notice of existing elements of the world

-diffusion creates changes as products, people, and infomation spread from on society to another.

-Karl Marx claimed that class conflict between capitalists and workers pushes society toward a socialist system of production

-social conflict arising from class,race,and gender inequality has resulted in social changes that have improved the lives of working people. 

- population patterns play a part in social change:

--aging in the U.S society has resulted in changes to family life and the development of consumer products to meet the needs of the elderly

--migration within and between societies promotes change. 

-crowds

-mobs and riots

-rumor

-fashion

-natual disasters

-technological disasters

-intentional disasters 

-alterative

-redemptive 

-reformative 

-revolutionary

-deprivation theory

-mass-society theory

-resource mobilization theory

-culture theory

-new social movements theory

-described modernization as the transition from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft, characterized by the loss of traditional community and the rise of individualism

-saw modernization as a society's expanding divison on labor.Mechanical solidarity based on shared activites and beliefs

-gradually replaced by organic solidarity, in which specialization makes people interdependent

-as the decline of a traditonal worldview and the rise of rationality. 

-he feared dehumanizaing effects of modern rational organization

-refers to the cultural traits of postindustrial societies

-postmodern criticism of society centers on the failure of modernity, and specially science, to fullfil its promise of prosperity and well-being. 

-mass-society theory

-enlarging the role of government and other formal organizations in carrying out tasks previously performed by familes in local communites. 

-cultural diversity and rapid social change make it difficult for people in modern societies to develop stable identities and to find meaning in their lives. 

-class-society theory

-rise of capitalism into a global economic system resulting in persistent social inequality

-by concentrating wealth in teh hands of a few,modern capitalist societies generates widespread feelings of alienation and powerlessness. 

-tradional-directedness

-other-directedness