Ch 44

How does an Albatross (other seabirds) use it's salt glands for osmoregulation? 

Albatross drinks salt water and prevents desiccation through nasal salt glands that remove salts in a highly concentrated solution. The salt glands consists of transport epithelial (move solutes in a controlled direction.)

Ch 47 

What is homunculus? 

What is epigenesis? 

- This is the term for a fully formed baby that is inside a sperm (or egg)

-this is the term for the embryo developing gradually from a formless egg. 

Ch 47

What is cytoplasmic determinants?

What is cell differentiation?

Cytoplasmic determinants and genes are inherited from the mother that helps develop the embryo. 

Cytoplasmic determinants are mRNA and proteins in an egg that helps determine the fate of the cell. 

This is the term for a process of cell specialization in structure and function. 

*note cells divide by mitosis and have the same genome but the difference in cell differentiation is the expression in cytoplasm for cell function. 

Ch 47

What is Fertilization?

What reaction occurs during fertilization?

This is combining two sets of haploid cells from two individuals into a single diploid cell, the zygote. This is the first of four steps of development. 

The reaction that occurs is called Acrosomal reaction. 

ch 47

Fertilization in sea urchin

 What is happening in Acrosomal Reaction? Cortical Reaction?

Fertilization Envelope?

1) Acrosome is a specialized tip at the head of the sperm. It swims to the egg and releases hydrolytic enzyme (acrosomal reaction)

2) Acrosomal process occurs when the actin filaments attach to the sperm receptor proteins. 

3) The sperm penetrates the vitelline layer then the plasma membrane triggering depolarization (Na+ change action potential of membrane) which acts as a fast block to polyspermy. 

4) (Cortical Reaction) Cortical granules releases enzymes and other molecules. It clips sperm receptors and removes other sperms. 

5) Fertilization envelope Egg's Endoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+. The envelope acts as a slow block and hardens after the sperm enters. 

Ch 47. 

What is the role of Ca2+ in egg activation?

ch 47.

How does fertilization differ in humans versus sea urchins?

1. Na+ does not occur in acrosomal reaction (no fast block)

2. It takes 12-36 hours for fertilization versus 90 minutes for sea urchins.

3. fertilization occurs internally.

4. egg is covered with follicle cells.

5. beneath follicle cell is zona pellucida (analogous to urchin's jelly coat)

ch 47. 

What is Clevage?

Blastomeres?

Blastocoel?

Blastula?

1. divides the fertilized zygote into many smaller cells 

2. the smaller cells that are the result of the division of the fertilized zygote.

3. fluid-filled cavity where division takes place. 

4. this is when the blastocoel is fully formed

Ch 47

What are the two poles in cleavage?

What determines the zygote polarity?

What is the animal that is best used to study cleavage?

1. Vegetal pole: area of yolk concentration

    Animal pole: area w/ less yolk. 

2. Zygote polarity is determined by cytoplasmic determinants and yolk distribution 

3. Frogs are best used to study clevage

ch 47

How does cleavage occur? 

1. Sperm entry 

2. plasma membrane and cortex rotate (cortical rotation) to where the sperm is.

3. the gray crescent is exposed.

4. Molecules in the gray crescent manufacture dorsal structures. 

5. The first two divisions are vertical

6. the third division is horizontal.

Note* the Animal pole is easier to divide than the yolk

Ch. 47

Describe cleavage in frogs,

chordates, and birds.

1. Cleavage in frogs are unequal (cell division) causing the blastocoel to be located in the animal hemisphere
2. Cleavage in chordates are similar in size, having relatively less yolk with the blastocoel being centrally located, called holoblastic cleavage
3. cleavage in birds and animals with copious yolk cannot occur in the yolk, but only the small cytoplasm located at the animal pole. Incomplete division of a yolk-rich egg is called meroblastic cleavage.

Ch. 47

What is Gastrulation? 

What are the three germ layers? 

1. cells migrate to new locations that will allow for formation of tissues an organs

-  Embryo is now a gastrula 

2. ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

Ch 47

Describe Gastrulation in a sea urchin

[image]

1. Blastocoel (opening in the middle) surrounded by a single layer of cells 

2.Vegetal pole becomes mesenchyme cells

3. Vegetal plate becomes flattened

4. Invagination where it collapse itself 

5. Archeteron another cavity

6. Filopodia, pull into gastrula.

7. filopodia contract

8. archeteron fuses w/ blastocoel

9. mouth is formed.

10. digestive tube is formed. 

Note: Anus form from blastopore

Ch. 47

Describe Gastrulation in Frogs

1. Invagination to create blastopore

2. outer cells roll inward

3. cells at animal pole spread out.

4. archeterom forms

5. blastocoel shrinks and disappears.

6. blastopore (future anus) is blocked by a yolk plug.

Ch. 47 

What is epiblast and hypoblast?

Describe Gastrulation in birds 

- blastoderm is analogous to blastula

1. Epiblast destined to become a baby.

2. hypoblast- peripheral cell

Epiblast migrates inwards at the primitive streak, forming endoderm and mesoderm. 

Ch. 47

What is Organogenesis?

Where is notocord and neutral

plate from?

Describe Organogenesis 

in a frog embryo.

- Organogenesis: beginnings of organ formation

- notocord from mesoderm

- neural plate from ectoderm

1. Neural plate curves inward to from the neural tube.

2. Neural crest cells migrate to various parts of the embryo to form:

- peripheral nerve cords

- skull bones

- parts of teeth

- More

3. some mesoderm near notochord becomes somites (blocks of mesoderm cells)

    - some migrate to different pars of embryo

    - some stay and become part of vertebrae

    - some become coelom. 

Ch. 47

Amniote Adaptations

What is extraembryonic membrane?

What germ layers contribute to the 

extraembryonic membrane?

1. membranes that are located outside of the embryo

2. the layers

a. chorion: and the membrane of allantois exchange gases btw the embryo and the surrounding air. 

b. allantois: functioin as a disposal sac for certain metabolic wastes produced by the embyo

c. amnion: protects the embryo in a fluid-filled cavity that prevents dehydration and cushions mechanical shock 

d. yolk sac: surrounds the yolk, a stockpile of nutrients in the egg. 

Ch. 47 

Mammal Early Development 

What is trophoblast? 

1. Secretes enzymes to break down endometrium. 

The trophoblast expands into endometrium. Trophoblast becomes chorion and part of the placenta 

Ch. 47

What is the purpose

of cytoskeletal fibers?

Cells can move by extending cytoskeletal fibers.

Can move in groups or individually by Convergent extension. 

[image]

Ch. 48

What are Cell Adhesion Molecules? (CAMS)

What is an important class of Cam?

[image]

1.Cams are a group of glycoproteins that contribute to cell migration and stable tissue structure 

2. Cadherins: w/o them the cells are disorganized 

Ch. 47

What is fibronectin?

Ch. 47

What is Fate Mapping?

Founder Cells?

Developmental potential?

[image]

1. tracking the fate of each cell in embryo.

2. Tissues of old embryo arise from founder cells 

3. as a cell ages, its "developmental potential" is restricted.

Ch. 47

What is totipotent?

What stage is no longer

capable of totipotent?

What stage are they

capable of totipotent? Why?

1. Cells are capable of developing into any cell

2. until the 16- cell stage

3. if the cells separate at the 8-cell stage they each can fully develop b/c 

a) even division of cytoplasmic determinants or

b) cells can regulate fate

Ch. 46

Asexual-sexual alternation

Which animals rotate btw sexual and asexual reproduction? 

When would they choose either method?

1. Aphids, rotifers, and water fleas can produce eggs that develop by parthogenesis (asexual) or eggs that require fertilization. 

2. They choose asexual when conditions are favorable. 

Ch. 46

What are the benefits and drawbacks of sexual and asexual reproduction?

1. Sexual reproduction benefits: produces offspring w/ unique combinations of parent's genes.  advantage for coping w/ change.

drawback: possible mutations

2. Asexual benefits: produce offspring that are just as suited for the environment as the parent. advantage for coping with stable conditions

drawback: if conditions change it can be deadly for the species. 

Ch. 47 

How do cells change shape during development?

[image]

Cells change shapes by a rearrangement of cytoskeleton with microfilaments (made of actin) and microtubules (larger) 

ex. Creation of neural tube

ch. 47

How do cells move in

early development?

Ch. 48

How is a chemical signal 

transmitted across a chemical

synapse between neurons?

1. Presynaptic neuron synthesizes neurotransmitter and wraps it in membranes (synaptic vesicles)

2. Action potential arrival depolarizes plasma membrane and Ca2+ moves into neuron

3. causes some synaptic vesicles to fuse w/ plasma membrane, releasing neurotransmitters.

4. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft 

5. neurotransmitters open voltage-gated ion channels specific for different ions 

Ch 44.

What is the energy budget for

osmoregulation in  

a kangaroo rat and humans?

1. Kangaroo rat gets most of their water from metabolism and loses it mainly by evaporation and very little of it through urination.

2. humans gain water from drinking and eating and loses most of it through urination.

Ch. 46

What are the conditions required

for external fertilization?

What are the two methods 

by which external fertilization

can occur?

1. moist to prevent desiccation and to allow for the sperm to swim towards the egg.

2.a) Broadcast spawning: environmental cue leads all individuals to release gametes at once. ex. full moon

   b) courtship behaviors: male and female exhibit mating behaviors and allows for mate choice. 

Ch. 44

What is osmoregulation?

How do marine and fresh water fish

osmoregulate?

1. process of maintaining a balance of fluids and solutes

2. Marine fish lives in a hyperosmotic environment. It will tend to lose water and gain salts. 

Fresh water fish lives in a hypoosmotic environment. It will tend to gain water and lose salts. 

Ch. 46

Gametogenesis

Describe the process 

of Spermatogenesis 

1. spermatogenesis is continuous and prolific

2. cell divion and maturation in the seminferous tubules

3. spermatogonial stem cell (start diploid)

4. under goes mitosis spermatogonium dividing into 2.

5. undergoes mitosis again and becomes primary spermatocyte

6. undergoes meiosis secondary spermatocyte

7. meiosis II early spermatid (looks like head of sperm)

8. developmental to become a full sperm to have a head and tail. 

Ch. 46

Gametogenesis 

Describe Oogenesis in females

1. begins in the female embryo

2. in the female embryo there is an oogomium that undergoes mitotic division

3. becomes a primary oocyte (meiosis I)

4. becomes secondary oocyte. Does not divide evenly (sperm does) Meiosis becomes a polar body (smaller than egg then disenergrates( the other egg has a chance to become a larger egg.

5. ovulation

6. sperm entry

7. completion of meiosis

8. then creates a 2nd polar body

9. then you have the mature egg. 

Ch. 49

What are the functions of

glial cells in the CNS?

1. promote circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

2. protect from invading microorganisms

3. synthesize myelin sheaths

    - insulation of axons of mammalian neurons

Astrocyte is a type of glial cell

- structural support

- regulate neurotransmitters

- regulate blood flow

- blood-brain barrier

Ch. 46

Give examples of

Sequential hermaphrodites

and simultaneous hermaphrodites

1. blue head wrasse and some oysters

2. earth worms, barnicles, clams, and tape worms.

Ch. 44

Where is Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)stored?

When does it secrete ADH?

How does ADH function to regulate excretion?

What happens when blood osmomolarity falls?

1. hormone stored in the pituitary gland

2. pitutary gland secretes ADH when blood osmomolarity rises, due to salt intake or lost of water. 

3. ADH targets the distal tubule and collecting ducts and makes them more permeable to water. Urine becomes more concentrated and blood osmomolarity falls.

4. When blood osmomolarity falls, ADH stops secreting.

Ch. 44

How does Renin-angiotensis-aldersterone system function to regulate excretion?

1. when blood pressure drops, specialized tissue called the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) releases renin (an enzyme).

2. Renin catalyzes a reaction that produced angiotensin II.

3. Angiotensin II constricts arterioles to decrease blood flow, but increase pressure.

4. Angiotensin II also stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete aldosterone

5. Aldosterone stimulates the distal tubules to reabsorb more Na+ and water, increasing the blood volume and pressure.

Ch. 46

Both ADH and RAAS function to remove water from the filtrate. What are they stimulated by

and what the they remove from the filtrate?

ADH stimulated by blood osmomolarity and removes water from the filtrate

RAAS is stimulated by blood pressre and removes water from the filtrate.

Ch. 46

How do hormones control

male reproductive cycles?

[image]

1. Starts w/ the hypothalamus releasing GnRH

2. From the pituitary gland, FSH and LH secretes in response to GnRH.

3. FSH promotes the activity of sertoli cells that nourish developing sperm.

4. LH regulates leydig cells, which secrete testerone

5. Leydig and sertoli stimulate spermatogenesis

6. Inhibin, a hormone that is produced by sertoli cells, acts on the pituitary gland to inhibit production of FSH.

Ch. 46

How does hormonal control

the female reproductive system?

(OVARIAN  CYCLE)

[image]

Hormonal control links the ovarian and uterine cycle so that ovulation occurs when the uterine linine is ready to support an embryo.

OVARIAN CYCLE

1. Starts at the hypothalamus releasing GnRH

2. then stimulating FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland.

3. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates follicle growth aided by LH and FSH.

4. Follicles secrete estradiol slowly FOLLICULAR PHASE. low levels of estradiol inhibit pituitary.

5. when estradiol secretion by the growing follicle begins to rise (right before ovulation) which stimulate the hypothalamus and FSH and LH. 

6. after ovulation, enter the luteal phase.

7. Corpus luteum: the cells left behind after ovulation.

            - secretes large protesterone and estradiol. 

8. Inhibits the hypothalamus which inhibits GnRH and FSH     

           and LH

9. end of luteum phase low levels of gonadotropin cause it to dissenegrate.

Ch. 46

How does hormone control

female reproductive system?

(UTERINE CYCLE)

Uterine Cycle

1. Low levels of estradiol stimulate thickening of endometrium.

2. ovulation occurs

3. corpus luteum secretes estradiol and progesterone.

4. stimulates endometrium to thicken.

5. corpus luteum disintegrates

6. endometrium sheds.

Ch. 44

What is the kidney

adaptation in mammals?

Would a Kangaroo rat or a beaver

have a longer loop of henle?

have juxtamedullary nephrons that extends far into the renal medulla. 

ex. Kangaroo rats have a longer loop of henle in their juxtamedullary nephros than a beaver b/c beaver does not need to concentrate it's urine b/c if lives in water. 

Ch 44.

What is the kidney

adaptation of birds? 

Have juxtamedullary nephrons but DOES NOT EXTEND FAR INTO THE RENAL MEDULLA as mammals.

Can conserve water by producing uric acid. 

Ch. 44

What are the kidney

adaptation of NON-AVIAN REPTILES

-does NOT have juxtamedullary nephrons

- Urine is hypoosmotic b/c it produces a lot of urine. 

- epithelium of cloaca reabsorbs some water. 

    (cloaca is a common exit for 3 systems)

Ch. 44

What are the kidney adaptations of 

Fresh water fish and amphibians?

- produce large volumes of dilute urine.

- fresh water fish reabsorb ions at the distal tubule 

- amphibians reabsorb salts across the skin.

Ch. 44 

What are the kidney

adaptations of marine fish?

- excrete very little urine (to conserve water)

- they dont have that many nephrons (but are short)

- main function of the kidney is to get rid of salts

- use gills to get rid of salts too. 

Ch. 48 + 49

How is resting potential generated?

[image]

- Inside of cell is more negative, while outside of cell is more positive.

- More Na+ on outside, More K+ on inside.

- More K+ channels then Na+ channels. More permeable to K+ ions, still allowing the inside to be more negative 

- Na+/K+ pumps actively transport, allows Na+ out of the cell and K+ back in. Compensating for Na+ and K+ leaks 

- Cl- if gets too negative it eventually prevents more K+ from leaving. 

- Equilibrium potential 

Ch. 48 + 49

What is an action potential?

How is an action potential generated? 

[image]

- Through neurons by the charges that on the inside and outside of the cell. 

1. Resting state: Gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed. Negative inside positive outside

2. Depolarization: Some Na+ (in) channels open, depolarizing the membrane. 

3. Rising phase of the action potential: Voltage-gated Na+ channels open (positive feed back loop) becomes more positive inside

4. Falling phase of the action potential: Na+ channel protein closes Na+ channel and voltage gated K+(out) channels open, bringing the membrane back to resting potential. 

5. Undershoot: K+ channels close after resting potential is reached but there is a brief undershoot. The inside hyperpolarize a little more negative. Allows neurons to move one way without bouncing back and forth.

Ch. 48 + 49

What is refractory period?

What is depolarization zone?

What is the conduction

speed dependent on?

[image]

Action potential generated over and over again as it moves one way down the axon. This is the undershoot where there are too many K+ leaving. Na+ channels remained closed so that new impulse can't travel right away. 

Depolarization Zone: keeps potential from moving backwards.

a. axon diameter: wide conduct action faster b/c of less resistance.

b. myelin sheath: insulation

Ch. 44

What are the four parts of the nephron?

1. Proximal tubule

2. Loop of henle

3. distal tubule

4. collecting duct

Ch. 44

What happens in the proximal tubule

part of the nephron?

1. Actively removes Na+ (if removes a lot of Na+ than a lot of Cl- and water will follow) 

2. Cl- passively follows 

3. water flows b/c of the concentration gradient

4. regulation of systemic blood pH by secreting H+ and NH3- and reabsorbing bicarbonate. 

Ch. 44

What happens in the descending

loop of henle of the nephron?

1. Water is reabsorbed through specialized channels

2. water moves using osmosis

3. the interstitial fluid is hyperosmotic due to the activities of the proximal tubule

Ch. 44 

What happens in the ascending

loop of henle in the nephron?

1. Ions are actively and passively transported out of the filtrate

2. the transport epithelium here is impenetrable to water, so water does not follow via osmosis. (end goal is to save water)

Ch. 44 

What happens in the distal tubule 

in the nephron?

1. More ion and pH regulation

2. specialized "pumps" in transport epithelium. 

Ch. 44

What happens in the collecting duct of the nephron?

1. hormones regulate the concentration of the filtrate by selectively opening water channels or actively transporting solutes. 

Ch. 48 + 49

What is a neuron?

What animals have neurons?

1. It is a bundle of nerves that transmit electrical (long distance) and chemical signals (short distances). 

2. Are found in animals with brains or ganglia to interpret the signals. 

Ch. 48 +49

What consists of the central nervous system?

[image]

The brain and the spinal

cord make up this system in humans.

Interneuron where they interpret motor neuron is the reaction

Ch. 48 + 49

What consist of the peripheral

nervous system?

Ch. 48 + 49 

How is information processed?

Sensory input (hearing something) travels to the brain then INTEGRATION (CNS) occurs here then motor output (PNS)

Ch 48 + 49

Where are interneurons?

Ch. 48 + 49

Where are motor neurons?

Ch 48 + 49

Where are sensory neurons?

Ch. 48 + 49 

What is the function of a dendrite?

[image]

Ch. 48 + 49

What is the function of an Axon hillock?

[image]

Ch 48+ 49

Where is the synapse?

[image]

Ch. 48 + 49

What are neurotransmitters?

[image]

Ch. 48 + 49

What is the function of the

presynaptic cell? 

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What is the function of postsynaptic cell?

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What is the function of a glial cell?

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What happens with membrane potential

in a sea urchin?

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What is voltage-gated ion channels?

Ch 48 + 49

What is hyperpolarization and 

depolarization?

1. is when the cell becomes MORE NEGATIVE, more K+ channels open (flowing out)

2. When Na+ channels open (flow in) when the inside of cell is LESS NEGATIVE.

Ch 48 + 49

What happens when a threshold is reached?

Ch 48 + 49

Where is the synaptic cleft?

The place where the neurotransmitter diffuses aka the synapse

[image]

Ch. 48 + 49

What opens the ligand-gated ions?

What are they?

Ch 48 + 49

What are post-synaptic potentials?

Do synapses make cells more positive, negative or both?

1.

- magnitude varies

- does not regenerate like action potential

- Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) can make the inside of the cell more positive, if enough EPSPs can trigger an action potential

- inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSPs) can make the inside of the cell more negative (hyperpolarization) 

2. can make cells more positive or negative.

Ch 48 + 49

What are the different types

of Nervous Systems?

1. Nerve Net: controls gastrovascular cavity. 

   ex. cnidarians

2. Nerves and Nerve Rings: bundles of nerves running down arms.

      ex. more complex such as echinoderms 

3. Cephalization: elongated, bilateral symmetry with clustering of neurons 

    ex. annelids like leeches. Nerve cord on a leech are ventral but humans are dorsal.

Ch 48 + 49

What is a ganglia?

Ch 48 + 49

Where is the cerebrospinal fluid?

What is the function of the cerebrospinal fluid?

What is considered the gray matter?

What is the white matter?

1. in the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain. 

2. bathes, cushions, nutrients, and hormones.

3. Cerebral cortex which are neuron cell bodies, dendrites unmyelinated axons.

4. bundles axon w/ myelin sheath.

[image]

Ch 48 + 49 

Where do afferent neurons lead?

To the CNS

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

Where do efferent neurons come from?

From the CNS

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What happens in the motor system?

Ch 48 + 49

What happens in the autonomic nervous system?

Ch 48 + 49

What division of the autonomic system that  controls the fight or flight?

sympathetic division

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What division of the autonomic nervous system controls rest and digest?

Parasympathetic division

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What division of the autonomic nervous system that controls secretion and parastalsis?

Ch 48 + 49

Where is the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain, and telencephalon? 

What does the telencephalon become?

Where does the cerebral cortex expand from?

[image]

forebrain is red, midbrain is purple and hindbrain is blue. The telencephalon is yellow.

the cerebrum.

from the cerebum, and it extends around much of the brain?

[image]

Ch 48 + 49 

What are the 3 parts of the Brain stem?

What are the functions of each?

1. Pons and Medulla: coordinate large scale movements.

2. Medulla: breathing, heart beat, swallowing, digestion

3. Midbrain: receives and integrates sensory information. Coordinate visual reflexes. 

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What is the function of a brainstem?

- Regulates arousal and sleep. 

- Reticular formation: network of neurons at a base of brainstem, determined which information reaches the cerebral cortex. 

- The brain is active during sleep. 

Ch 48 + 49

What does the cerebellum do?

Coordinates movement and balance

Hand eye coordination

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What are the 3 parts of the diencephalon?

What are each of the functions?

1. Thalamus: main input center for information going into the cerebrum

2. Hypothalamus: homeostasis

3. Epithalamus: includes pineal gland the source of melatonin (which controls circardian rhythms) and generates cerebrospinal fluid. 

[image]

Ch 48 + 49

What is the corpos callosum?

Ch 48 + 49

How is information transferred in the cerebral cortex?

1. information is gathered at the somatosensory receptors (IE. hand, face)

2. travel up the spinal cord (except facial muscles)

3. directed by thalamus and/or somatosensory cortex

4. then to primary sensory 

5. then to association area

6. frontal association area

7. motor cortex

8 then spinal cord to PNS. 

Ch 48 + 49

What are the five types of neurotransmitters?

1. Acetylcholine 

2. Biogenic amines

3. amino acids

4. neuropeptides

5. gasses 

Ch 48 + 49

What neurotransmitter is excitory transmitter for muscles?

What targets the same receptors?

What block these receptors?

Acetylcholine. 

Nicotene 

botulism is caused by bacterial toxin

Ch 48 + 49

What are four types of biogenic amines?

1. serotonin: effect sleep, mood, attention, learning.

2 dopamine : effect sleep, mood, attention, learning.

3. epinepherine: used as hormone

4. norepinepherine: used as hormone

Ch 48 + 49

What is an example of an amino acid neurotransmitter?

1. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) produces IPSP (inhibits a reaction)

2. glutamate: most common neurotransmitter in brain, excitory.

Ch 48 + 49

What is an example of the neurotransmitter neuropeptide? What is the function?

1. substance P: controls how we feel pain

2. endorphins: decrease pain perception during fighting or labor.

Ch 48 + 49

What are some gasses as neurotransmitters?

dissolved gasses like NO or CO are volatile and non-specific and are synthesized locally, enzymes that make them are localized where they are needed.

Ch 46

How do animals that use external fertilization ensure offspring survival?

Ch 46

What do animals do that use internal fertilization that ensure offspring surival?

1. develop inside egg

2. develop inside female reproductive tracts

3. degrees of parental care.

Ch 47

What are Cadherins?

Ch 44.

What is osmoregulation?

Ch 44

What is Excretion?

Ch. 44

What is osmosis?

Ch. 44

What is osmomolarity?

Ch. 44

What is hyperosmotic?

ch. 44

What is hypoosmotic?

Ch. 44

Which direction does water flow?

Ch. 44 

What is isoosmotic?

Ch. 44

What is an osmoconformer?

What animals are an osmoconformer?

Animals that can be isoosmotic with the environment.

Marine animals

Ch. 44

What is an osmoregulator?

Will an osmoregulator have to uptake or discharge water if it lives in a hypoosmotic environment?

What if it lives in a hyperosmotic environment?

Animals that control their internal osmomolarity. 

Discharge water, because there is more water and less solute.

It would have to uptake more water, because there are more solute.

Ch. 44 

What does it mean for an animal 

to be stenohaline?

Ch. 44

What does it mean for

an animal to be euryhaline?

An animal that can tolerate large 

ranges of external osmomolarity.

Ch 44. 

Will a marine fish tend to

gain or lose water? Will it lose or gain salts?

Ch. 44

Will a fresh water fish tend to gain or lose water? gain or lose salts?

Ch. 44

What is anhydrobiosis?

Ch. 44

What is transport epithelial?

Ch. 44

What animal produces ammonia as urine?

What animal produced urea as urine?

What animal produces uric acid as urine?

Fish

mammals

reptiles including birds.

Ch. 44

What is hydrostatic pressure?

It drives filtration. 

- large molecules stay in body fluid

- water and small solutes (salts, sugars, nitrogenous waste) cross the membrane

Ch. 44

What occurs during reabsorption?

Ch. 44

What happens during secretion?

Ch. 44

What are the four types of excretory systems?

1. Protonephridia- Flat worms

2. metanephridia- annelid orms

3. malpighian tubules: arthopods

4. kidneys: vertebrates 

Ch. 44

Describe how the excretory system or flat worms (acoelomate) work. 

[image]

protonephridia

1. network of dead-end tubules connected to extenal openings.

2. flame bulb inside of each dead-end with cilia to draw water and solutes from interstitial fluid into the tubules. 

Ch. 44

Describe the excretory system of Annelid worms

Metanephridia

1. each segment of has a pair of metanephridia

2. metanephridia are tubules that open to the coelom.

3. cilia draw fluid from the anterior segment into the metanephridia.

4. waste is secreted through openings in each segment.

[image]

Ch. 44

How does the excretory system in an arthropod work?

[image]

Malpighian tubules

1. solutes and awter are secreted into dead-end tips immersed in hemolymph

2. tubules empty into digestive tract

3. essential materials and water are reabsorbed into the hemolymph from the rectum. efficient water conservation

Ch. 44 

How does the mammalian Excretory system work?

1. liver removes toxins and regulates solutes.

2. blood flows to the heart and is pumped to the body

3. blood flows into the kidneys from a renal artery and exits from the renal vein.

4. the kidney does its thing

5. urine exits the kidney through a ureter, drains into a urinary bladder and exits the body from a urethra.

Ch. 44 

What happens in the kidney in the mammalian excretory system?

[image]

1. blood pressure forces blood into a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus

2. water and small solutes are filtered into the nephron via the bowman's capsule (nonselective)

3. The filtrates flows through the nephron where the transport epithelium reabsorbs water and solutes (selective) 

4. capillaries surround the nephron. 

Ch. 44

What are they two types of nephrons?

[image]

1. Cortical nephrons 

   - short loops of henle 

    - confined to renal cortex

2. juxtamedullary nephrons

    - long loops of henle

    - extend into the renal medulla.

[image]

Ch. 44

What animals have juxtamedullary nephrons? What is it's function? Which animal would have a longer juxtamedullary nephron?

What is different about the juxtamedullary nephron of birds and mammals?

• Mammals and birds. 
• to concentrate urine
• an animal living in a dry climate would have a longer juxtamedullary nephron than an animal living in an aquatic environment.
• does not extend far into the medulla.

Ch. 44

What is the osmotic adaptation

of a salt water fish?

1. gain water from salt and ions from food and water.

2. excrete salt ions from gills and urine from kidneys

3. osmotic water loss through gills and other parts of the body surface.

4. excretes very little water.

Ch. 44

What is the osmotic adaptation of

a fresh water fish?

1. drinks water and some ions from food

2. uptake salt ions by gills

3. excrete large amounts of water in dilute urin from kidneys

4. osmotic water gain through gills and other parts of the body surface.

Ch. 46

What can stimulate parthogenesis?

Ch. 46

How do polychaete worms produce gametes?

- develop gametes from undiffertiated cells lining the coelom

- the cells become gametes until they spill out of the body through the excretory opening or rip out of the body wall.

Ch. 44

What is the process of excretion?

FILTRATION: is driven by hydrostatic pressure. Large molecules stay in the body fluid, water and small solutes cross the membrane.

 REABSORPTION useful molecules are reabsorbed into the body fluid 

SECRETION: nonessential solutes and waste are left in the filtrate or are added by

 EXCRETION: waste leaves the body 

Ch. 46

What are the two modes of reproduction?

Asexual- relies on mitotic cell division

Sexual: fusion of haploid gametes (sperm and egg) form a diploid zygote. 

Ch. 44

What are the four types of asexual reproduction?

1. Fission

2. budding

3. parthogenesis

4. fragmentation-regeneration.

Ch. 46

What is ovulation?

Ch. 46 

What is broadcast spawning?

Ch. 46

What are gonads?

Do all animals have them?

are distinct organs that produce gametes

Not all animals have them such as polychaete worms develop gametes from undifferentiated cells lining the coelom.

Ch. 46

What are spermatheca?

Female insects have this. It is a sac that stores sperm for up to a year and can release the sperm for fertilization at the right time. 

Ch. 46

What is a cloaca?

Ch. 46

Describe the female reproductive system

[image]

Ovaries- female gonads

1. outer layer of ovaries are packed with follicles, each containing an oocyte (immature egg) 

2. After secretion of the mature egg into the oviduct, a group of cells called the corpus luteum forms to secrete hormones to maintain uterine lining in case of pregnancy. 

3. cilia move the mature egg through the oviduct to the uterus using peristalsis

4. endometrium- the lining of the uterus, richly supplied with blood vessels.

5. cervix- leads to the vagina. 

Ch. 46

Describe the male reproductive system.

[image]

Testes- male glands

1. seminiferous tubules: are coiled inside the testes and are the site of sperm formation

2. leydig cell scattered around the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone and other hormones.

3. immature sperm leave the testes via epididymis

4. during ejaculation, sperm travels through the vas deferens and becomes semen with the contribution of three glands. 

a. seminal vesicles- mucus, fructose

b. prostate gland- more nutrients

c. bulbourethral gland- neutralizes any urine left in the ureter.

Ch. 46

Describe what occurs in Gametogenesis in males?

[image]

spermatogenesis:produce sperm

1. it is continuous and prolific

2. cell division and maturation in seminferous tubules.

3. spermatogonial stem cell (start diploid) 

4. spermatogonium undergoes mitosis dividing into 2.

5. primary spermatocyte: undergoes mitosis again 

6. Secondary spermatocyte: undergoes meiosis.

7. early spermatid: Meiosis II looks like the head of sperm.

8. development into a full sperm.

Ch. 46

What occurs in gametogenesis in females?

Oogenesis: produce eggs 

1. begins in female embryo

2. Oogonium (in embryo) that undergoes mitotic division

3. Primary oocyte (in embryo) meiosis I.

4. Secondary oocyte. does not divide evenly Meiosis II larger egg and first polar body.

5. Ovulation

6. sperm entry

7. completion of meiosis 

8. 2nd polar body and a mature egg.

Ch. 46

What hormone comes from the hypothalamus?

Ch. 46

What hormones come from the pituitary

gonadotropins 

- follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

- lutenizing hormone (LH)

Ch. 46

What are the benefits of seasonal breeding?

Ch. 47

Where is the blastocoel located in frogs during clevage?

Ch. 50

Hearing and Equilibrium

How do humans maintain an equilibrium using the inner ear? 

[image]

1. Utricle and Saccule perceive position 

2. Otoliths (calcium carbonate stones) in each chamber.

3. Otoliths move with your position and press on hairs in chamber, transmit to nerves.

4. semicircular canals (attached to utricle) detect angular movement. 

Ch. 50

How do fish maintains equilibrium and how does it compare to humans?

1. fish use ears, lateral line and swim bladder for equilibrium.

2 the lateral line is similar to the mammal's inner ear. The water pressure moves "hairs" which trigger nerves.

Ch. 50

How does equilibrium in invertebrates work?

Statocyst

   - ciliated receptor cells surround a      

     chamber with statoliths

"hairs" on body

   - vibrate in response to found

   - diff. thicknesses

"ears" on legs

   - tympanic membrane over internal air

     chamber.

ch. 50

What are the benefits and drawbacks of locomotion?

1. air has little resistance

2. gravity, balance, friction

ch.50 

What are the two ways that the nervous system controls the strength of a muscle contraction?

1. can vary number of fibers that contract. Each motor neuron controls several fibers

2. Can vary rate at which the fibers are stimulated. 

ch. 50

Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

What is a sensory receptor?

Ch. 50

Sensory and Motor

What is a sensory transduction?

Ch. 50

What is sensory amplification?

Give an example.

energy of stimulus is amplified during transduction by enzyme pathways or other organs.

Ex. photon of light is amplified 100K times the energy for brain.

Ch. 50

What is sensory adaptation?

Give an example.

Responsiveness adapts to frequency of stimulus. 

ex. Not aware of every heart beat.

Ch. 50

What are mechanoreceptors?

Where is the sense of touch embedded in mammals?

Physical changes by 

a. pressure

b. touch

c. stretch

d. motion

e. sound

2. muscles, sense of touch, embedded in connective tissue. 

Ch. 50

What are chemoreceptors?

give an example

General changes in solute concentration or respond to specific molecules.

ex. male silkworm moth has chemoreceptors for female pheromones. 

Ch. 50

what are electromagnetic receptors?

give examples.

light, electricity, magnetism. 

ex. photoreceptors in eyes

infrared receptors in snakes

migrating animals

Ch. 50

What are thermoreceptors?

Skin, anterior hypothalamus

Mammals- different receptors for different temperature ranges.

Ch 50

What are nociceptors?

Ch. 50

where is the pinna located and auditory canal located? What is it's function?

Pinna is the external part of your ear, the flap and the auditory canal is the canal leading from the pinna into the ear.

The function of both is

to collect sound waves.

[image]

Ch. 50 

Where is the tympanic membrane?

What is it's function?

The auditory canal leads to the sound to be channeled into here, the eardrum.

[image]

Ch. 50

What comes after the tympanic membrane?

What is the function here?

The inner ear follows,

the malleus, incus, stapes. (MIS)

Function: transmit vibrations

to the oval window

[image]

Ch. 50

Where is the oval window? 

What is it's function

It follows the stapes into an oval shaped window 

Fn: creates waves in cochlea

[image]

Ch. 50

Where is the cochlea?

What is it's function?

It is a round looking snail shell

that follows the oval window. 

Fn: Bends hairs

[image]

Ch. 50

Ch. 50

What happens when hair is bent

in the cochlea?

What can the ear detect?

- Bending hairs one way releases excitatory neurotransmitters that DEPOLARIZES

- bending hair the OTHER way releases fewer neurotransmitter, so HYPERPOLARIZES.

- detecting volume and pitch.

[image]

Ch. 50

What detects tastants using chemoreceptors?

Ch. 50

What are taste buds?

What do they detect?

They are modified epithelial cells that have a specific type of receptor that detects 

- sweet

- salty

- sour

- bitter

- umami (MSG)

Ch. 50

What detects odorants using chemoreceptors?

how many % of human genes are dedicated to producing

olfactory receptor cells?

Olfaction, sensory cells are specialized neurons. 

3%

Ch. 50

What are odorants?

Ch. 50 

What part of the eye is the sclera?

The white layer

[image]

Ch. 50

What part of the eye is the

pigmented layer?

Choroid

[image]

Ch. 50

What is the part of the eye

that is a layer with photoreceptors?

The retina

[image]

Ch. 50

What is the function of the cornea?

it allows light in

[image]

Ch. 50

What is the function of the Iris?

What part of the eye is it?

regulates light entry

the eye color

[image]

Ch. 50

What is the the function of the pupil?

where light enters.

[image]

Ch. 50 

Where do the photoreceptors lead to?

to the optic disk then to the optic nerve

[image]

Ch. 50

What are rods?

What is the visual pigment in rods?

contained in the retina that help with night vision and is only black and white. B/c it is night vision it is more sensitive to light.

Rhodopsin

Nocturnal predators like cats will have more rods than cones. 

Ch. 50

What are cones?

What are the visual pigments in cones?

contained in retina with 3 types 

blue, green and red

photopsins, absorb light at different wavelengths.

humans have more cones than rods b/c they see better during the day. 

Ch. 50

What is the function of bipolar cells?

depolarize or hyperpolarize

depending on the receptors 

to process visual information 

from rods/cones 

[image]

Ch. 50

What is the function of ganglion cells?

transmit action potentials

from bipolar cells to brain

[image]

Ch. 50

What are horozontal cells

and amacrine cells?

what are they interspaced with?

transmit signals btw

photoreceptors and bipolar cells

Bipolar cells

[image]

Ch. 50

What is the function of

an ocelli in planarians?

it is surrounded by cells that block light except for one opening photoreceptors cells at opening detect light. 

Ch. 50

What animals have compound eyes?

Insects, some can see color

some can see UV

Ch. 50

What animals have

single-lens eyes?

Describe how it functions

Jellies, spiders, molluscs

light enters through pupil

iris contract/expands

lens focuses light on photoreceptors

lens moves forward/backwards.

Ch. 50

What are myofibrils? 

this is what a muscle fiber is composed of.

myosin (thick) and actin

(thin) are composed of this. 

[image]

Ch. 50

What is a sarcomere? 

a unit of muscle contraction

[image]

Ch. 50

What is a Z-line?  (think zkinny)

M-line? (think more)

-  brings together thin filaments

- bring together thick filaments

[image]

Ch. 50

Muscle

What is the sliding filament model?

1. filaments slide past each other in contraction

2. action potenial in neuron

3. Muscle cell E.R. releases Ca2+

4. Ca2+ binds to actin and exposes myosin-binding sites

5. myosin head binds to actin, releases ADP and phosphate, and bends

6. when ATP binds to myosin head, head releases actin

7. as long as Ca2+ is present this continues. 

Ch. 40

What animals have hydrostatic skeleton?

How does it work?

What do annelids use to move?

1. annelids, cnidarians, nematodes, flatworms

2. muscles change shape of fluid-filled compartments

3. peristaltic crawling

Ch. 50

What animals have exoskeletons?

What is it made of?

1. arthropod and molluscs

2. cuticle (w/ chitin) for arthropods 

    - calcium carbonate shell for molluscs

Ch. 50

Describe the sensory pathway

of a crayfish.

[image]

1. sensory reception by sensory cells (specialized neuronal or epithelial cell) sensory receptors are these cells and sensing structures within the cells in crafish, body bends

2. dendrites connected to muscles triggers ion channels on it to open. 

3. sensory transduction the conversion of physical or chemical stimulus to a change in membrane potential. 

4. receptor potential: change in membrane potential itself. 

5. Receptor potential intiates transmission of an action potential to CNS

  - the magnitude of receptor potential controls the rate of action potentials      (all or nothing) in this case the sensory receptor is a specialized neuron

     (if the receptor is not a neuron it will transmits neurotransmitters to a           neuron that can trigger an action potential) 

6. perception  Brain receives stimulus

Ch. 44

How do terrestrial animals prevent desiccation?

1. insect exoskeleton

2. terrestrial snail shell

3. layers of dead skins

4. nocturnal activity

5. ingesting water in food and drink

6. producing water loss through skin, excretion, and elimination

7. producing water through cellular respiration

Ch. 44

What are the drawbacks and benefits 

of the types of nitrogenous waste?

1. ammonia drawback: requires a lot of water

benefit: aquatic inverts excrete directly across skin and fish excrete most across gills 

2. urea: drawback: energy

benefit: less toxic, can be stored in high concentration.

3. Uric acid drawback: expensive to make 

            benefit: not water soluble, saves the most water and

      least toxic

ch. 50

describe how vision in humans

functions at the molecular level

with dark and light response.

1. synapse with bipolar cells (neurons) 

Dark Response

  - rod is depolarized (Na+ channel open, Na+ flow into cell and inside becomes less negative) 

  - releases glutamate

  - bipolar cell is depolarized or      

    hyperpolarized

Light response

   - rod is hyperpolarized Na+ channels close, inside is           more negative

   - glutamate is NOT released

   - bipolar cell can depolarize or hyperpolarize.