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| is that these structures are autonomous, and that their units are interdependent, because they are constituted through contrast with one another. So how we discursively conceive of ourselves, or anything, for that matter, is dependent on contexts found within historically contingent systems.[1] |
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| which says that “mental states are constituted by their causal relations to one another and to sensory inputs and behavioral outputs |
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| is the study of how social conditions affect human beings |
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These matters are often summarized by the five postulates of Humanistic Psychology given by James Bugental (1964), mainly that:
Human beings cannot be reduced to components.
Human beings have in them a uniquely human context.
Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people.
Human beings have choices and non desired responsibilities.
Human beings are intentional, they seek meaning, value and creativity. |
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| also known as human development, is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and more recently, adult development, aging, and the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes, problem solving abilities, conceptual understanding, language acquisition, moral understanding, and identity formation. |
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| also known as human development, is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and more recently, adult development, aging, and the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes, problem solving abilities, conceptual understanding, language acquisition, moral understanding, and identity formation. |
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| learning perspective, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors.[1] The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind.[2] Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling) |
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| s a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the whole is different than the sum of its parts. The classic Gestalt example is a soap bubble, whose spherical shape is not defined by a rigid template, or a mathematical formula, but rather it emerges spontaneously by the parallel action of surface tension acting at all points in the surface simultaneously. This is in contrast to the "atomistic" principle of operation of the digital computer, where every computation is broken down into a sequence of simple steps, each of which is computed independently of the problem as a whole. The Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves. |
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| cognitive behavioral therapy |
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| The particular therapeutic techniques vary according to the particular kind of client or issue, but commonly include keeping a diary of significant events and associated feelings, thoughts and behaviors; questioning and testing cognitions, assumptions, evaluations and beliefs that might be unhelpful and unrealistic; gradually facing activities which may have been avoided; and trying out new ways of. Relaxation and distraction techniques are also commonly included. CBT is widely accepted as an evidence- and empiricism-based, cost-effective psychotherapy for many disorders and psychological problems. It is sometimes used with groups of people as well as individuals, and the techniques are also commonly adapted for self-help manuals and, increasingly, for self-help software packages. |
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| is a theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to explain mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. This approach brings an adaptationist way of thinking about biological mechanisms such as the immune system into the field of psychology and approaches psychological mechanisms in a similar way. Evolutionary psychology focuses on how evolution has shaped the mind and behavior. Though applicable to any organism with a nervous system, most research in evolutionary psychology focuses on humans. |
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is a lobe in the brain. It is positioned above (superior to) the occipital lobe and behind (posterior to) the frontal lobe.
The parietal lobe integrates sensory information from different modalities, particularly determining spatial sense and navigation. For example, it comprises somatosensory cortex and the dorsal stream of the visual system. This enables regions of the parietal cortex to map objects perceived visually into body coordinate positions. |
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| is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain, containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex.[1] The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called V1 (visual one). Human V1 is located on the medial side of the occipital lobe within the calcarine sulcus; the full extent of V1 often continues onto the posterior pole of the occipital lobe. V1 is often also called striate cortex because it can be identified by a large stripe of myelin, the Stria of Gennari. Visually driven regions outside V1 are called extrastriate cortex. There are many extrastriate regions, and these are specialized for different visual tasks, such as visuospatial processing, color discrimination and motion perception. |
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are part of the cerebrum. They lie at the sides of the brain, beneath the lateral or Sylvian fissure. Seen in profile, the human brain looks something like a boxing glove. The temporal lobes are where the thumbs would be.
The temporal lobe is involved in auditory processing and is home to the primary auditory cortex. It is also heavily involved in semantics both in speech and vision. The temporal lobe contains the hippocampus and is therefore involved in memory formation as well.
The Temporal lobe is involved in speech, memory, and hearing. |
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| is an area in the brain of mammals. Located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere, frontal lobes are positioned in front of (anterior to) the parietal lobes. The temporal lobes are located beneath and behind the frontal lobes. In the human brain, the precentral gyrus and the related cortical tissue that folds into the central sulcus comprise the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts associated with areas of the gyrus. |
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| are a group of nuclei in the brain interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and brainstem. Mammalian basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions: motor control, cognition, emotions, and learning. |
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links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The hypothalamus, (from Greek ὑποθαλαμος = under the thalamus) is located below the thalamus, just above the brain stem. This brain region occupies the major portion of the ventral diencephalon. It is found in all mammalian brains. In humans, it is roughly the size of an almond.
The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of the Autonomic Nervous System. It synthesizes and secretes neurohormones, often called hypothalamic-releasing hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones.
The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, [1] fatigue, anger, and circadian cycles. |
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| is a part of the forebrain, located in the medial temporal lobe. It belongs to the limbic system and plays major roles in short term memory and spatial navigation. Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi, one in each side of the brain. In rodents, where it has been studied most extensively, the hippocampus is shaped something like a banana. In humans, it has a curved and convoluted shape that reminded early anatomists of a seahorse. |
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| are almond-shaped groups of neurons located deep within the medial temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans.[2] Shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions, the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system.[3] |
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| is the lower part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord. Some taxonomies describe the brain stem as the medulla and mesencephalon, where as others include diencephalic regions. |
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the five factors are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN, or CANOE if rearranged). They are also referred to as the Five Factor Model (FFM). However, some discussion remains about how to interpret the Openness factor, which is sometimes called "Intellect." [3] Each factor consists of a cluster of more specific traits that correlate together. For example, extraversion includes such related qualities as sociability, excitement seeking, impulsiveness, and positive emotions.
The Five Factor Model is a purely descriptive model of personality, but psychologists have developed a number of theories to account for the Big Five. |
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| sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival[4]. Examples of primary reinforcers include sleep, food, air, water, and sex. Other primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers. |
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| sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus which functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satiation and deprivation with secondary reinforcers. |
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| also known as implicit memory or unconscious memory, is the long-term memory of skills and procedures, or "how to" knowledge (procedural knowledge). |
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| is a mood disorder characterized by chronic mildly depressed or irritable mood often accompanied by other symptoms (as eating and sleeping disturbances, fatigue, and poor self-esteem). The depressed mood must be present for most of the day for two years with no more than two months’ freedom from symptoms. In addition at least two of the following symptoms must occur concurrently with the depression: disruption in eating habits - poor appetite or overeating; disturbed sleeping pattern insomnia; low energy or fatigue; low self-esteem; poor concentration or difficulty making decisions; and a feeling of hopelessness.[1] Dysthymia is a disorder that can be treated through anti-depressants and psychotherapy. |
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is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal, pathological anxiety, fears, phobias. It describes nervous system disorders as irrational or illogical worry not based on fact.
Anxiety and fear are ubiquitous emotions. The terms anxiety and fear have specific scientific meanings, but common usage has made them interchangeable. |
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| The locus of control can either be internal (meaning you believe that you control yourself and your life) or external (meaning you believe that your environment, some higher power or other people control your decisions and your life). If was developed by Rotter in 1954 as an important aspect of personality. |
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(commonly known as fraternal twins, but also referred to as non-identical twins or biovular twins) usually occur when two fertilized eggs are implanted in the uterine wall at the same time. The two eggs form two zygotes, and these twins are therefore also known as dizygotic as well as "biovular" twins. When two eggs are independently fertilized by two different sperm cells, DZ twins result.
Dizygotic twins, like any other siblings, have an extremely small chance of having the exact same chromosome profile. Like any other siblings, DZ twins may look similar, particularly given that they are the same age. However, DZ twins may also look very different from each other. They may be different sexes or the same sex. The same holds true for brothers and sisters from the same parents, meaning that DZ twins are simply brothers and/or sisters who happen to have the same age. |
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| , frequently referred to as identical twins, occur when a single egg is fertilized to form one zygote (monozygotic) which then divides into two separate embryos. Their traits and physical appearances are not exactly the same; although they have nearly identical DNA[1], environmental conditions both inside the womb and throughout their lives influence the switching on and off of various genes. Division of the zygote into two embryos is not considered to be a hereditary trait, but rather an anomaly that occurs in birthing at a rate of about three in every 1000 deliveries worldwide,[8] regardless of ethnic background. The two embryos develop into fetuses sharing the same womb. When one egg is fertilized by one sperm cell, and then divides and separates, two identical cells will result. If the zygote splits very early (in the first two days after fertilization), each cell may develop separately its own placenta (chorion) and its own sac (amnion). |
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| Unconditional positive regard |
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Definition
By showing the client unconditional positive regard and acceptance, the therapist is providing the best possible conditions for personal growth to the client.
To practice unconditional positive regard, while maintaining congruence at all times, the therapist provides specific feedback. The counselors show and demonstrate their care with their actions. If a clinician finds it hard to unconditionally regard their patient in a positive light, they need to keep in mind Carl Rogers’ belief that all people have the internal resources required for personal growth. According to this theory, it is the environment that can make the difference as to whether growth occurs. A patient’s past environment may have been such that patterns of behaviour were developed in order to survive in that environment. These patterns can become entrenched so that the patient continues to operate in the world with them even if they are no longer appropriate. It is usually an inappropriate pattern that makes it hard for the clinician to regard their clients positively. The clinician needs to feel for the person under those patterns and for the person who was damaged and then survived by adapting by developing the patterns that are no longer appropriate. |
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| is concerned with understanding how biology, behavior, and social context influence health and illness.[1] Health psychologists generally work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings, although many also teach and conduct research. Although its early beginnings can be traced to the kindred field of clinical psychology, four different approaches to health psychology have been defined: clinical, public health, community and critical health psychology[2] |
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| is a theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to explain mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. This approach brings an adaptationist way of thinking about biological mechanisms such as the immune system into the field of psychology and approaches psychological mechanisms in a similar way. Evolutionary psychology focuses on how evolution has shaped the mind and behavior. Though applicable to any organism with a nervous system, most research in evolutionary psychology focuses on humans. |
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| Psychodynamic psychotherapy |
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Definition
| is a form of depth psychology, the primary focus of which is to reveal the unconscious content of a client's psyche in an effort to alleviate psychic tension. [1] In this way, it is similar to psychoanalysis, however, psychodynamic therapy tends to be more brief and less intensive than psychoanalysis, and also relies more on the interpersonal relationship between client and therapist than do other forms of depth psychology. In terms of approach, this form of therapy also tends to be more eclectic than others, taking techniques from a variety of sources, rather than relying on a single system of intervention. It is a focus that has been used in individual psychotherapy, group psychotherapy, family therapy, and to understand and work with institutional and organizational contexts.[citation needed] |
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Electroencephalography (EEG) is the measurement of electrical activity produced by the brain as recorded from electrodes placed on the scalp.
Just as the activity in a computer can be perceived on multiple different levels, from the activity of individual transistors to the function of applications, so can the electrical activity of the brain be described on relatively small to relatively large scales. At one end are action potentials in a single axon or currents within a single dendrite, and at the other end is the activity measured by the scalp EEG. |
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| Is a nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radioisotope (tracer), which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule. Images of tracer concentration in 3-dimensional space within the body are then reconstructed by computer analysis. In modern scanners, this reconstruction is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient during the same session, in the same machine. |
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Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method employing tomography. Digital geometry processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. The word "tomography" is derived from the Greek tomos (slice) and graphein (to write).
Computed tomography was originally known as the "EMI scan" as it was developed at a research branch of EMI, a company best known today for its music and recording business. It was later known as computed axial tomography (CAT or CT scan) and body section roentgenography.
CT produces a volume of data which can be manipulated, through a process known as windowing, in order to demonstrate various structures based on their ability to block the X-ray beam. Although historically (see below) the images generated were in the axial or transverse plane (orthogonal to the long axis of the body), modern scanners allow this volume of data to be reformatted in various planes or even as volumetric (3D) representations of structure |
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| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique primarily used in Radiology to visualize the structure and function of the body. It provides detailed images of the body in any plane. MR has much greater soft tissue contrast than computed tomography (CT) making it especially useful in neurological, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological imaging. Unlike CT it uses no ionizing radiation, but uses a powerful magnetic field to align the nuclear magnetization of (usually) hydrogen atoms in water in the body. Radiofrequency fields are used to systematically alter the alignment of this magnetization, causing the hydrogen nuclei to produce a rotating magnetic field detectable by the scanner. This signal can be manipulated by additional magnetic fields to build up enough information to reconstruct an image of the body. |
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| Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures the haemodynamic response related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. It is one of the most recently developed forms of neuroimaging. |
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| is a noninvasive method to excite neurons in the brain: weak electric currents are induced in the tissue by rapidly changing magnetic fields (electromagnetic induction). This way, brain activity can be triggered with minimal discomfort, and the functionality of the circuitry and connectivity of the brain can be studied. |
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is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic (though not always logical) means. It is strategy of problem-solving relying on "appeals" rather than strength.
Manipulation is taking persuasion to an extreme, where the one person or group benefits at the cost of the other.
Aristotle said that "Rhetoric is the art of discovering, in a particular case, the available means of persuasion." |
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| is a psychological state that describes the uncomfortable feeling when a person begins to understand that something the person believes to be true is, in fact, not true. Similar to ambivalence, the term cognitive dissonance describes conflicting thoughts or beliefs (cognitions) that occur at the same time, or when engaged in behaviors that conflict with one's beliefs. In academic literature, the term refers to attempts to reduce the discomfort of conflicting thoughts, by performing actions that are opposite to one's beliefs. |
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Definition
is a process by which people's beliefs or behaviors are influenced by others within a group. People can be influenced via subtle shocks, even unconscious processes, or by direct and overt peer pressure. Conformity can have either good or bad effects on people, from driving safely on the correct side of the road, to harmful drug or alcohol abuse.
Conformity is a group. Numerous factors, such as unanimity, cohesion, status, prior commitment and public opinion all help to determine the level of conformity an individual will reflect towards his or her group. Conformity influences the formation and maintenance of social norms. |
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| is a learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written langauge, particularly with reading and spelling. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction.[1] Evidence suggests that dyslexia results from differences in how the brain processes written and/or verbal language. Although dyslexia is the result of a neurological difference, it is not an intellectual disability. Dyslexia occurs at all levels of intelligence; sub-average, average, above average, and highly gifted.[2] |
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, according to linguistics and psychology, is speech during the two-word stage of language acquisition in children, which is laconic and efficient.
In a telegram, writing in flowery language involves hours of deciphering and translation into Morse code. To avoid doing so, telegrams are written in two to three words, without conjunctions or articles, so they get the point across with the fewest amount of words and letters. As children develop language, they speak similarly: when a child says "Water now!" it is understood that the child means, "I would appreciate a glass of water, please." |
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| is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. |
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| is the study of the ability of natural language speakers to communicate more than that which is explicitly stated. The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. An utterance describing pragmatic function is described as metapragmatic. Another perspective is that pragmatics deals with the ways we reach our goal in communication. Suppose, a person wanted to ask someone else to stop smoking. This can be achieved by using several utterances. The person could simply say, 'Stop smoking, please!' which is direct and with clear semantic meaning; alternatively, the person could say, 'Whew, this room could use an air purifier' which implies a similar meaning but is indirect and therefore requires pragmatic inference to derive the intended meaning. |
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| (sometimes known as face blindness) is a disorder of face perception where the ability to recognize faces is impaired, while the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively intact. The term usually refers to a condition following acute brain damage, but recent evidence suggests that a congenital form of the disorder may exist. The specific brain area usually associated with prosopagnosia is the fusiform gyrus.[1] |
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Definition
is the conversion of a stimulus from one form to another.
Transduction in the nervous system typically refers to synaptic events wherein an electrical signal, known as an action potential, is converted into a chemical one via the release of neurotransmitters. Conversely, in sensory transduction a chemical or physical stimulus is transduced by sensory receptors into an electrical signal.
For example, in the visual system, sensory cells called rod and cone cells in the retina convert the physical energy of light signals into electrical impulses that travel to the brain. |
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Definition
is the consistency of a set of measurements or measuring instrument, often used to describe a test. This can either be whether the measurements of the same instrument give or are likely to give the same measurement (test-retest), or in the case of more subjective instruments, such as personality or trait inventories, whether two independent assessors give similar scores (inter-rater reliability). Reliability is inversely related to random error.
Reliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure is measuring something consistently, but not necessarily what it is supposed to be measuring. For example, while there are many reliable tests of specific abilities, not all of them would be valid for predicting, say, job performance. In terms of accuracy and precision, reliability is precision, while validity is accuracy. |
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| as it occurs in logic refers generally to a property of deductive arguments, although many logic texts apply the term to statements (where a "statement" is something that has a truth value, such as true and false). For the purposes of this article, an argument is a set of statements, one of which is the conclusion and the rest of which are premises. The premises are reasons intended to show that the conclusion is, or is probably, true. |
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Definition
| is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. It is named after James R. Flynn, who did much to document it and promote awareness of its implications. This increase has been continuous and roughly linear from the earliest days of testing to the present. "Test scores are certainly going up all over the world, but whether intelligence itself has risen remains controversial," psychologist Ulric Neisser wrote in an article in 1997 in The American Scientist.[1] The Flynn effect may have ended in some developed nations starting in the mid 1990s although other studies, such as Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples (Dickens, Flynn; 2006), still show gain between 1972 and 2002. |
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Term
| standard deviation of a probability distribution |
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Definition
, random variable, or population or multiset of values is a measure of statistical dispersion of its values. The standard deviation is usually denoted with the letter σ (lower case sigma). It is defined as the square root of the variance.
To understand standard deviation, keep in mind that variance is the average of the squared differences between data points and the mean. Variance is tabulated in units squared. Standard deviation, being the square root of that quantity, therefore measures the spread of data about the mean, measured in the same units as the data.
Stated more formally, the standard deviation is the root mean square (RMS) deviation of values from their arithmetic mean. |
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Definition
| is described as the number separating the higher half of a sample, a population, or a probability distribution, from the lower half. The median of a finite list of numbers can be found by arranging all the observations from lowest value to highest value and picking the middle one. If there is an even number of observations, the median is not unique, so one often takes the mean of the two middle values. For example, if a < b < c, then the median of the list {a, b, c} is b, and if a < b < c < d, then the median of the list {a, b, c, d} is the mean of b and c, i.e. it is (b + c)/2. |
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| is the value that occurs the most frequently in a data set or a probability distribution. In some fields, notably education, sample data are often called scores, and the sample mode is known as the modal score.[1] |
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| is the length of the smallest interval which contains all the data. It is calculated by subtracting the smallest observations from the greatest and provides an indication of statistical dispersion. |
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| is the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that is attributable to genetic variation among individuals. Variation among individuals may be due to genetic and/or environmental factors. Heritability analyses estimate the relative contributions of differences in genetic and non-genetic factors to the total phenotypic variance in a population. |
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Definition
| is a simplified and/or standardized conception or image with specific meaning, often held in common by people about another group. A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image, based on the assumption that there are attributes that members of the other group hold in common. Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a false association between two variables that are loosely if at all correlated. Stereotypes may be positive or negative in tone. They are typically generalizations based on minimal or limited knowledge about a group to which the person doing the stereotyping does not belong. Persons may be grouped based on racial group, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, age or any number of other categories |
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Definition
| is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus. |
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Definition
| is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism. |
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| Systematic desensitization |
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Definition
| is a type of behavioral therapy used in the field of psychology to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders. More specifically, it is a type of Pavlovian therapy / classical conditioning therapy developed by a South African psychiatrist, Joseph Wolpe. To begin the process of systematic desensitization, one must first be taught relaxation skills in order to control fear and anxiety responses to specific phobias. Once the individual has been taught these skills, he or she must use them to react towards and overcome situations in an established hierarchy of fears. The goal of this process is that an individual will learn to cope and overcome the fear in each step of the hierarchy, which will lead to overcoming the last step of the fear in the hierarchy. Systematic desensitization is sometimes called graduated exposure therapy. |
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Definition
| Subjective constancy is the perception of an object or quality as constant under changing conditions. |
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| Kohlberg's stages of moral development |
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Definition
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(The good boy/good girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
(Principled conscience) |
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| Theory of Cognitive Development, |
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Definition
one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980). His genetic epistemological theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of concepts grounded in interactions with the world. The theory concerns the emergence and construction of schemata — schemes of how one perceives the world — in "developmental stages", times when children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing information. The theory is considered "constructivist", meaning that, unlike nativist theories (which describe cognitive development as the unfolding of innate knowledge and abilities) or empiricist theories (which describe cognitive development as the gradual acquisition of knowledge through experience), it asserts that we construct our cognitive abilities through self-motivated action in the world. For his development of the theory, Piaget was awarded the Erasmus Prize.[1] Piaget divided schemes that children use to understand the world through four main periods, roughly correlated with and becoming increasingly sophisticated with age:
Sensorimotor period (years 0–2)
Preoperational period (years 2–7)
Concrete operational period (years 7–11)
Formal operational period (years 11 and up) |
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Definition
| is defined as a) the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world, including other people and b) the tendency to perceive, understand and interpret the world in terms of the self. The term derives from the Greek egô, meaning "I". An egocentric person has no theory of mind, cannot "put himself in other people's shoes," and believes everyone sees what he sees (or that what he sees in some way exceeds what others see.) |
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Definition
| is the term used to describe the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible. |
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| general adaptation syndrome |
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Definition
| (GAS, a theory of stress came from an endocrinological experiment in which he injected mice with extracts of various organs. He at first believed he had discovered a new hormone but was proved wrong when every irritating substance he injected produced the same symptoms (swelling of the adrenal cortex, atrophy of the thymus, gastric and duodenal ulcers). This, paired with his observation that people with different diseases exhibit similar symptoms, led to his description of the effects of "noxious agents" as he at first called it. He later coined the term "stress", which has been accepted into the lexicon of various other languages. |
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| refers to a specific type of treatment in which the "analysand" (analytic patient) verbalizes thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the unconscious conflicts causing the patient's symptoms and character problems, and interprets them for the patient to create insight for resolution of the problems. |
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Definition
| is responsible for our basic drives such as food, sex, and aggressive impulses. It is amoral and egocentric, ruled by the pleasure–pain principle; it is without a sense of time, completely illogical, primarily sexual, infantile in its emotional development, and will not take "no" for an answer. It is regarded as the reservoir of the libido or "love energy". |
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Definition
| is the minds identification with forms and social labels (body, thoughts, memories, social roles, life-story, opinions, emotions, material possessions, name, nationality, religion, likes and dislikes, desires, fears, etc.) and includes "the pain-body", which is created by the cumulation of suppressed emotions, the suffering of non-acceptance of what is in the present moment. |
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Definition
| retains the character of the father, while the more powerful the Oedipus complex was and the more rapidly it succumbed to repression (under the influence of authority, religious teaching, schooling and reading), the stricter will be the domination of the super-ego over the ego later on — in the form of conscience or perhaps of an unconscious sense of guilt (The Ego and the Id, 1923). |
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Definition
Freud's model of psychosexual development
Stage Age Range Erogenous zone(s) Consequences of Fixation
Oral 0-18 months Mouth Orally aggressive:
Involves chewing gum or ends of pens.
Orally Passive:
Involves smoking/eating/kissing/fellatio/cunnilingus[3]
Anal 18-36 months Bowel and bladder elimination Anal-retentive:
Obsession with organization or excessive neatness
Anal-expulsive:
Reckless, careless, defiant, disorganized, Coprophiliac
Phallic 3-6 years Genitals Oedipus complex (in boys only according to Freud)
Electra complex (in girls only, later developed by Carl Jung)
Latency 6 years-puberty Dormant sexual feelings (People do not tend to fixate at this stage, but if they do, they tend to be extremely sexually unfulfilled.)
Genital Puberty and beyond Sexual interests mature Frigidity, impotence, unsatisfactory relationships |
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Definition
| g is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of respondent behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.[1] |
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Definition
(also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov[1] . The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the Conditioned Response (CR).
Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in only three species using a variety of methodologies. Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and functions that underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eyeblink conditioning, and Classical Conditioning of Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex. |
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Definition
| (also known as: vicarious learning or social learning or modeling) is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and, in the case of imitation learning, replicating novel behavior executed by others. It is most associated with the work of psychologist Albert Bandura, who implemented some of the seminal studies in the area and initiated social learning theory. It involves the process of learning to copy or model the action of another through observing another doing it. Further research has been used to show a connection between observational learning and both classical and operant conditioning. |
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Definition
| is a foundational element of logic and human reasoning. Generalization posits the existence of a domain or set of elements, as well as one or more common characteristics shared by those elements. As such, it is the essential basis of all valid deductive inference. The process of verification is necessary to determine whether a generalization holds true for any given situation. |
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Definition
| is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences between things. This article focuses on discrimination amongst people—that is, the prejudicial treatment of different groups of people based on certain characteristics. Discrimination on grounds such as race or religion, is generally illegal in most Western democracies, while discriminating between people on the grounds of merit is usually lawful. The latter is more commonly referred to as "differentiating." When unlawful discrimination takes place, it is often described as discrimination against a person or group of people. |
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Definition
in operant conditioning, is the reemergence of a conditioned response which has been previously extinguished. Spontaneous recoveries tend to yield somewhat muted responses in which extinction occurs more readily.
For example, a dog's conditioned response of salivating to a bell will often, after it has been extinguished, reappear when the dog later hears the sound of a bell. This phenomenon is known as "spontaneous recovery." |
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Definition
| is an increase in the strength of a response following the change in environment immediately following that response.[1] Response strength can be assessed by measures such as the frequency with which the response is made (for example, a pigeon may peck a key more times in the session), or the speed with which it is made (for example, a rat may run a maze faster). The environment change contingent upon the response is called a reinforcer. Reinforcement can only be confirmed retrospectively, as objects, items, food or other potential 'reinforcers' can only be called such by demonstrating increases in behavior after their administration. It is the strength of the response that is reinforced, not the organism. |
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Term
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Definition
| , sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus which functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satiation and deprivation with secondary reinforcers. |
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Definition
| of a probability distribution, random variable, or population or multiset of values is a measure of statistical dispersion of its values. The standard deviation is usually denoted with the letter σ (lower case sigma). It is defined as the square root of the variance. |
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Definition
| describes the central location of the data, and the standard deviation describes the spread. |
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Definition
| is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population of concern, especially for the purposes of statistical inference. Each observation measures one or more properties (weight, location, etc.) of an observable entity enumerated to distinguish objects or individuals. Survey weights often need to be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide practice. |
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Definition
| or random placement is an experimental technique for assigning subjects to different treatments (or no treatment). The thinking behind random assignment is that by randomizing treatment assignment, then the group attributes for the different treatments will be roughly equivalent and therefore any effect observed between treatment groups can be linked to the treatment effect and is not a characteristic of the individuals in the group. |
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Definition
| is a method of observation, commonly used by psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats. Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behaviour they are observing by using unobtrusive methods. Objectively, studying events as they occur naturally, without intervention. |
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Definition
| is one of several ways of doing social science research. Other ways include experiments, surveys, multiple histories, and analysis of archival information |
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Definition
indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two random variables. In general statistical usage, correlation or co-relation refers to the departure of two variables from independence. In this broad sense there are several coefficients, measuring the degree of correlation, adapted to the nature of data.
A number of different coefficients are used for different situations. The best known is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, which is obtained by dividing the covariance of the two variables by the product of their standard deviations. |
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Term
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Definition
is a demonstration of a process — such as a variable, term, or object — relative in terms of the specific process or set of validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity. Properties described in this manner must be publicly accessible so that persons other than the definer can independently measure or test for them at will. An operational definition is generally designed to model a conceptual definition.
The most basic operational definition is a process for identification of an object by distinguishing it from its background of empirical experience. The binary version produces either the result that the object exists, or that it doesn't, in the experiential field to which it is applied. The classifier version results in discrimination between what is part of the object and what is not part of it. This is also discussed in terms of semantics, pattern recognition, and operational techniques, such as regression. |
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Term
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Definition
| is often used to signify a conjecture, an opinion, or a speculation. In this usage, a theory is not necessarily based on facts; in other words, it is not required to be consistent with true descriptions of reality. This usage of theory leads to the common incorrect statements. True descriptions of reality are more reflectively understood as statements which would be true independently of what people think about them. |
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Term
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Definition
| (from Greek ὑπόθεσις) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomena. The term derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose." The scientific method requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base such hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. |
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Term
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Definition
| ex. is when you study for a test in little increments instead of cramming right before a tset |
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Term
| erickson's psychosocial stages of developement |
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Definition
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Term
| frued's stages of development |
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Definition
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Term
| major reflexes present at birth |
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Definition
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Definition
| is the process of organization and transforming incoming info so that it can be entered into memory,either to be compared wit h previuosly stored info in memory |
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Definition
is the process of digging info out of memory
ex. trying to remember someone's name |
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Term
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Definition
a memory store that holds a large amount of perceptual input for avery brief time, typically one sec.
it arises bc of the temporary activation of perceptual areas of your brain stimulus
visual form is called iconic memory
auditory from of SM is echoic memory |
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Term
| short term memory: the contents of consciousness |
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Definition
aka immediate memory
a memory holds relatively little info for only a few seconds |
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Term
| long term memory: records of experience |
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Definition
a memory store that holds a huge amount of info for a long time from hours to years
rehearsal is important input bc it is one way in which we move info |
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Term
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Definition
memories that you are unaware of having but that non the less predispose you to behave in certain ways in the presence of specific stimuli
cant be called voluntary to the mind |
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Term
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Definition
memories of the meanings of words, concepts, and general facts about the world
for the most part you dont know how you learned this specific info |
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Term
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Definition
| memories that can be retrieved at will and represented in STM; verbal and visual are this type of memory |
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Term
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Definition
refers to memory of a person's history
where previous experience affects how we remember events and what we ends up recalling from memory |
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Term
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Definition
| memories of events that area associated with a particular context- a time, place and circumstance |
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Term
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Definition
the system that includes 2 specialized STM and a central executive that operates on info in them to plan, reason, or solve problems
ex. during scrabble when you are given certain letters and then you try to make words with the letters that you are given |
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Term
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Definition
| an unusually vivid and accurate memory of a dramatic event |
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Term
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Definition
| increased memory for the first few stimuli in a set |
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Term
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Definition
| increased memory for the last few stimuli in a set |
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Term
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Definition
the process if converting info stored dynamically in LTM into structural change in the brain
occurs not only for facts and events but also for memories fo sequences of movements
it is repeated so much that it can not be forgot |
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Term
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Definition
amnesia that disrupts previous memories
this is popular amnesia used in movies |
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Term
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Definition
real memories that have been pushed out of consciousness bc they are emotionally threatening
it affects all explicit memories that is memories of facts that can be brought to consciousness voluntarily and produces massive encoding failure |
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Term
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Definition
| strategies that improve memory typically by using effective organization and integration |
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Term
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Definition
| the stages the body passes though during sexual activity, including sexual attraction, desire, excitement, and possibly performance |
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Term
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Definition
We seek intermediate levels of stimulation: when understimulated, we seek arousal; when overstimulated, we seek less stimulation
Weakness
Difficult to define levels of stimulation and how they vary
somethings might be very stressful for someone but for someone else it is not that stressful |
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Term
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Definition
| people perform best at intermediate levels of arousal |
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Term
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Definition
Condition that occurs after an animal has an aversive experience in which nothing it does can affect what happens to it, and so it simply gives up and stops trying to change the situation or to escape
ex. when a wife gets abused on a regular basis therefore stops fighting back and just endures the pain
This can lead to depression and a range of stress-related problems |
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Term
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Definition
| the most typical or best example of a concept category. (Ex. If the category was fruit, a prototype would be apple because that is one of the first fruits people think about). **they are different for different cultures |
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Term
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Definition
a collection of concepts that specify necessary and optional aspects of a particular situation
ex. the "room" schema indicates that it must have walls, a floor a ceiling and at least one door |
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Term
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Definition
a strategy that does not guarantee the correct answer to a problem but offers a solution to a problem
speedier than heuristics but also more error prone
(notes) methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem |
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Term
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Definition
a strategy that does not guarantee the correct answer to a problem but offers a likely shortcut to it
They are particularly useful for:
• Ill-defined problems: problems when the goal or the method of reaching the goal are not clearly specified
• Well-defined problems: problems where the goal and the method of reaching the goal are clearly specified. Both heuristics and algorithms are useful. |
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Term
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Definition
basic building blocks of speech sounds
humans can produce about 100
different languages use dif. phonemes |
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Term
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Definition
semantics (meaning of a word) is represented by this
the smallest unit of meaning in a language |
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Term
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Definition
the internal structure of a sentence, determined by a set of rules (grammar) for combining different parts of speech into acceptable arrangements
how the structure of a sentence is made |
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Definition
| when someone has brain damage it is called this |
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Term
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Definition
is involved in the use of syntax to produce and understand sentences
mainly in the left frontal lobe |
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Term
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Definition
problems with comprehending language following brain damage
left temporal lobe |
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Term
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Definition
is the heart of any language
it is the set of rules that determines how words can be organized into an infinite number of acceptable sentences in a language |
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Term
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Definition
the way in which words and sentences in a language convey meaning indirectly, by implying rather than asserting
there are 3 major communication skills involved with this:
using language fro dif. purposes (ex. greeting, informing, demanding)
adapting of changing language according to the needs of a listener or situation (talking dif. to a baby than to a adult)
many rules from conversations and narratives |
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Term
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Definition
| is used to help a person achieve personal growth and or come to terms with a specific event or problem they are having. PCT is based on the principle of talking therapy and is a non-directive approach. The therapist encourages the patient to express their feelings and does not suggest how the person might wish to change, but by listening and then mirroring back what the patient reveals to them, helps them to explore and understand their feelings for themselves. The patient is then able to decide what kind of changes they would like to make and can achieve personal growth. Although this technique has been criticized by some for its lack of structure and set method it has proved to be a hugely effective and popular treatment. PCT is predominantly used by psychologists and counselors in psychotherapy. |
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Term
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Definition
| is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental illness characterized by impairments in the perception or expression of reality, most commonly manifesting as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking in the context of significant social or occupational dysfunction. Onset of symptoms typically occurs in young adulthood,[1] with approximately 0.4–0.6%[2][3] of the population affected. Diagnosis is based on the patient's self-reported experiences and observed behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| a psychological phenomenon well known to advertisers: people express undue liking for things merely because they are familiar with them. This effect has been nicknamed the "familiarity breeds liking" effect. In interpersonal attractiveness research studies, the term exposure principle is used to characterize the phenomenon in which the more often a person is seen by someone the more pleasing and likeable that person appears to be. |
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Term
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Definition
| it can be the filtering of information that conflicts with what one already believes, in an effort to ignore that information and reinforce one's beliefs. In detailed terms, it is the perception of incompatibility between two cognitions, where "cognition" is defined as any element of knowledge, including attitude, emotion, belief, or behavior. The theory of cognitive dissonance states that contradicting cognitions serve as a driving force that compels the mind to acquire or invent new thoughts or beliefs, or to modify existing beliefs, so as to reduce the amount of dissonance (conflict) between cognitions. Experiments have attempted to quantify this hypothetical drive. Some of these have examined how beliefs often change to match behavior when beliefs and behavior are in conflict. |
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Term
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Definition
is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation evoking a new behaviour which makes the original false conception come 'true'. This specious validity of the self-fulfilling prophecy perpetuates a reign of error. For the prophet will cite the actual course of events as proof that he was right from the very beginning
Examples abound in studies of cognitive dissonance theory and the related self-perception theory; people will often change their attitudes to come into line with what they profess publicly. |
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Term
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Definition
is a form of social influence that involves a direct request, often by a person in need, such as a friend or acquaintance who asked for a favor, or a stranger who requests directions or the time of day
Therefore, analysis of different tactics in different studies suggests that success of applications may depend on carefully planned modifications of the techniques to calibrate them optimally to the particular situations in which strategies are to be undertaken |
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Term
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Definition
refers to a cognitive bias whereby the perception of a particular trait is influenced by the perception of the former traits in a sequence of interpretations.
where the first traits we recognize in other people then influence the interpretation and perception of latter ones (because of our expectations). Attractive people are often judged as having a more desirable personality and more skills than someone of average appearance. Celebrities are used to endorse products that they have no expertise in evaluating. |
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Term
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Definition
| the general term describing the psychological and bodily response to a stimulus that alters the body's state of equilibrium |
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Term
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Definition
| a stimulus that throws the body's equilibrium out of balance |
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Term
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Definition
short term stress
physical: being in a car accident
psychological: working against a deadline
social: being humiliated |
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Term
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Definition
long term stress
physical:being underfed, having cancer
psychological: chronically feeling pressured by work
Social:chronic isolation, overcrowding |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to the tendency for people to want to believe that the world is "just" so strongly that when they witness an otherwise inexplicable injustice they will rationalize it by searching for things that the victim might have done to deserve it. This deflects their anxiety, and lets them continue to believe the world is a just place, but at the expense of blaming victims for things that were not, objectively, their fault |
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Term
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Definition
is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. Social exchange theory posits that all human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. For example, when a person perceives the costs of a relationship as outweighing the perceived benefits, then the theory predicts that the person will choose to leave the relationship. The theory has roots in economics, psychology and sociology.
Social exchange theory is tied to rational choice theory and on the other hand to structuralism, and features many of their main assumptions. |
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Term
| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| is the tendency for people to over-emphasize dispositional, or personality-based, explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing situational explanations. In other words, people have an unjustified tendency to assume that a person's actions depend on what "kind" of person that person is rather than on the social and environmental forces influencing the person. Overattribution is less likely, perhaps even inverted, when people explain their own behavior |
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Term
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Definition
occurs when people attribute their successes to internal or personal factors but attribute their failures to situational factors beyond their control. This is also known as "defensive attribution". This can be seen in the common human tendency to take credit for success but to deny responsibility for failure. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests. Dale Miller and Michael Ross first suggested this attributional bias. Self-serving bias also results in a systematic bias resulting from people thinking that they perform better than average in areas important to their self esteem. For example, a majority of drivers think they drive better than the average.[citation needed]
For instance, a student who gets a good grade on an exam might say, "I got an A because I am intelligent and I studied hard!" while a student who does poorly on an exam might say, "The teacher gave me an F because he does not like me!" When someone seeks out external causes for their poor performance, it may be labeled self-handicapping. |
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Term
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Definition
| is a type of thought exhibited by group members who try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing, and evaluating ideas. During groupthink, members of the group avoid promoting viewpoints outside the comfort zone of consensus thinking. A variety of motives for this may exist such as a desire to avoid being seen as foolish, or a desire to avoid embarrassing or angering other members of the group. Groupthink may cause groups to make hasty, irrational decisions, where individual doubts are set aside, for fear of upsetting the group’s balance. The term is frequently used pejoratively, with hindsight. |
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Term
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Definition
s an effective compliance tactic that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having that person agree to a modest request. It takes advantage of the foot-in-the-door phenomenon:"the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
The technique is used by children ("Can I go over to Suzy's house for an hour?" is followed shortly by "Can I stay the night") |
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Term
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Definition
is a persuasion method. Compliance with the request of concern is enhanced by first making an extremely large request that the respondent will obviously turn down. The respondent is then more likely to accede to a second, more reasonable request than if this second request were made with out the first, extreme request. There is also a feeling of guilt associated with the DITF technique of sequential requests. A person is also more likely to agree with the second request because they feel guilty for having rejected the first request. A reference point (or framing) construal can also explain this phenomenon, as the initial bad offer sets a reference point from which the second offer looks like an improvement.
Will you donate $1000 to our organization? [Response is no].
Oh. Well could you donate $10?'' |
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Term
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Definition
by first gaining commitment to the idea or item at lower costs which you are confident that the other person will accept, then using the fact that people will behave consistently with their beliefs to sustain the commitment when you change the agreement at a higher level.
This strategy is an illusion of irrevocability whereby a person believes that a decision made (at lower costs) cannot be reversed, he/she may consider a handshake instead of handing over the money as the final transaction to close that deal hence they have a responsibility to commit to it to the very end.
Besides, agreeing to a low price creates excitement and not buying after this state is induced may lead to an equally deep depression, which the person may avoid by continuing with the more expensive but reasonable purchase. When the final price is not that much higher than elsewhere, the person weighs up the inconvenience of going elsewhere with the short-term benefit of holding their purchase. |
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Term
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Definition
| a tendency to seek information that will confirm a rule, and not to seek information that is inconsistent with the rule |
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Term
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Definition
| Children with immense talent in a particular area, may be perfectly normal in other areas; for example, mathematically gifted children often are not gifted in other domains |
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Term
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Definition
| children have IQs of at least 135, but morecommonly denotes the 150-180 range. Much of the research on the gifted has focused on people with very high IQs, above 150, and that is the criterion we apply here. |
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Term
| MENTAL RETARDATION (IQ RANGES, CHARACTERISTICS) |
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Definition
People with an IQ score of 70 or lower have traditionally been considered to be mentally retarded. The American Association for Mental Retardation specifies two additional criteria:
---(1) "significant limitations" in two or more everyday abilities, such as communication, self-care, and self-direction, and
---(2) the presence of the condition since childhood.
Retardation does not imply an inability to learn. Mildly retarded people can learn to function well as normal adults, and behavioral techniques that incolve explicit shaping and reinforcement can allow even severely retarded people to master many tasks. Furthermore, many otherwise retarded children display ISLANDS OF EXCELLENCE, areas in which they perform remarkably well. Savants show this quality. For example, a savant may be able to determine the day of the week for any calendar date, including dates centures from now or in the past or to draw outstandingly vivid, detailed pictures, but this same person may be incapable of doing simpy addition. |
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Term
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Definition
| The most common type of retardation, with an average IQ of 55, but the degree of retardation varies widely, and may disrupt everyday activities less severely than other forms of mental retardation. The most frequent form is not inherited but caused by a genetic problem- the creation of an extra chromosome during conception |
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Term
| SEX (GENDER) DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE |
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Definition
| Men tend to drink more alcohol and to exercise more often than do women, and women tend to have more depressive symptoms than do men. "Better health and health habits in males can account for their better performance on some tests, but such factors cannot account for better female performance on tests." Also, part of the sex differences may arise from how boys and girls are treated in society. Boys and girls are encouraged to take part in "sex appropriate" activities. This is important in part because if you do not perform activities that itilize spatial abilities, those abilities do not develop. And traditionally, girls have not been encouraged to participate in as many activities that require spacial skills, such as climbing trees and playing ball, as have boys. Females are better at spatial reasoning than many males, and many males are better at verbal reasoning than females. Here, too, differences in the group averages say nothing about differences among particular individuals. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is estimated that 10% of all birth defects are caused by a prenatal exposure or teratogen. These exposures include, but are not limited to, medication or drug exposures, maternal infections and diseases, and environmental and occupational exposures. Teratogen-caused birth defects are potentially preventable. Studies have shown that nearly 50% of pregnant women have been exposed to at least one medication during gestation. An additional study found that of 200 individuals referred for genetic counseling for a teratogenic exposure, 52% were exposed to more than one potential teratogen. |
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Term
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Definition
| : is the ability to reason without relying heavily on previously learned knowledge or procedures ("a person's mental horsepower, the ability to solve cognitive powers on the spot") Fluid intelligence would be used to figure out novel solutions, such as how to write when a pen or pencil isn't available. Fluid intelligence can be measured with tests that do not rely on language, and this some researchers have argued that it may reflect a fairer, less culturally bound measure of intelligence. |
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Term
| MEASURING INTELLIGENCE (IQ SCORES) |
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Definition
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT: a test score used in Western countries as a general measure of intelligence.
---IQ tests were originally intended to identify children in the public schools who needed extra classroom help. They were asked to copy a drawing, repear a string of digits, recognize coins and make change, and explain why a particular statement did not make sense. After giving the test to different age groups of normal children, they were able to identify the questions answered by the majority of each group. So, if a child could solve all the problems solved by most 9 yr olds but failed those passed by most 10 yr olds, then their mental age (MA) was said to be 9. Children with a mental age lower than their chronological age (CA) were considered relatively slow. Their test was quickly adapted to suit new purposes like.. |
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| WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE |
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| A score on an intelligence test, originally based on comparing mental age to chronological age, but later based on norms and used as a measure of general intelligence. Consisted of two major parts, the verbal subtests assess the ability to understand and use language by testing vocabulary, comprehension and other aspects of verbal skill. The performance subtests consist of nonverbal tasks suck as arranging pictures in an order that tells a story and spotting the missing element in a picture. |
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general sequential reasoning
Induction quantitative reasoning |
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| crystallized intelligence |
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language development
verbal language comprehension
spelling ability |
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| it is using most intimate for therapy to help overcomestuff. |
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is a clear anatomical division or extension[1][2] that can be determined without the use of a microscope (at the gross anatomy level.) This is in contrast to a lobule, which is a clear division only visible histologically. [3]
In practice, this division can be somewhat subjective. For example, it can be difficult to precisely distinguish between a interlobar duct and a interlobular duct.
Furthermore, the distinction is not universally accepted, and some sources simply consider a lobule to be a small lobe. |
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| is a region of the brain that plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception and motor control. In order to coordinate motor control, there are many neural pathways linking the cerebellum with the cerebral motor cortex (which sends information to the muscles causing them to move) and the spinocerebellar tract (which provides proprioceptive feedback on the position of the body in space). The cerebellum integrates these pathways, like a train conductor, using the constant feedback on body position to fine-tune motor movements |
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| (singular meninx) is the system of membranes which envelops the central nervous system. The meninges consist of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges and of the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the central nervous system. |
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| peripheral nervous system |
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| (PNS) can be divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The PNS is not protected by bone, leaving it exposed to injury, unlike the central nervous system, which is made of the brain and spinal cord, to serve the limbs and organs. |
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| Sympathetic Nervous System |
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| (SNS) is a branch of the autonomic nervous system along with the enteric nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. It is always active at a basal level (called sympathetic tone) and becomes more active during times of stress. Its actions during the stress response comprise the fight-or-flight response |
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| parasympathetic nervous system |
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| (PSNS) is a division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), along with the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and Enteric nervous system (ENS or "bowels NS"). The ANS is a subdivision of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). ANS sends fibers to three tissues: cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, or glandular tissue. This stimulation, sympathetic or parasympathetic, is to control smooth muscle contraction, regulate cardiac muscle, or stimulate or inhibit glandular secretion. |
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| (IPA: /njˈɒɹɒns/, also known as neurones and nerve cells) are electrically excitable cells in the nervous system that process and transmit information. Neurons are the core components of the brain, and spinal cord in vertebrates and ventral nerve cord in invertebrates, and peripheral nerves. |
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| provide support and protection for neurons, the other main type of cell in the nervous system. They are thus known as the "glue" of the nervous system. The four main functions of glial cells are to surround neurons and hold them in place, to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons, to insulate one neuron from another, and to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons. |
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| (also known as a nerve impulse or spike) is a pulse-like wave of voltage that travels along several types of cell membranes. The best-understood example is generated on the membrane of the axon of a neuron, but also appears in other types of excitable cells, such as cardiac muscle cells, and even plant cells. The resting voltage across the axonal membrane is typically −70 millivolts (mV), with the inside being more negative than the outside. As an action potential passes through a point, this voltage rises to roughly +40 mV in one millisecond, then returns to −70 mV. The action potential moves rapidly down the axon, with a conduction velocity as high as 100 meters/second (225 miles per hour). Because of this high speed, action potentials are used to transmit information, with this being particularly important in neurons, as these cells can be more than a meter long. |
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| (from Greek dendron, “tree”) are the branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project. Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic arbor. Dendrites play a critical role in integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which action potentials are produced by the neuron. |
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| are in effect the primary transmission lines of the nervous system, and as bundles they help make up nerves. |
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| is an electrically-insulating dielectric phospholipid layer that surrounds only the axons of many neurons. |
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| are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. |
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| are specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form interconnected circuits within the central nervous system. |
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| is a structure that recognizes a stimulus in the internal or external environment of an organism. In response to stimuli the sensory receptor initiates sensory transduction by creating graded potentials or action potentials in the same cell or in an adjacent one. |
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| is often produced by sensory transduction. It is generally a depolarizing event resulting from inward current flow. The influx of current will often bring the membrane potential of the sensory receptor towards the threshold for triggering an action potential. |
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| , is the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the neurotransmitter transporter of a pre-synaptic neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse. |
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A human eye
Eyes are organs that detect light. Different kinds of light-sensitive organs are found in a variety of animals. The simplest "eyes", in even unicellular organisms, do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms and may allow the organism to seek out or avoid light, but hardly can be called vision.
More complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colors. The visual fields of some such complex eyes largely overlap, to allow better depth perception (binocular vision), as in humans; and others are placed so as to minimize the overlap, such as in rabbits and chameleons.
In the human eye, light enters the pupil and is focused on the retina by the lens. Light-sensitive nerve cells called rods (for brightness) and cones (for color) react to the light. They interact with each other and send messages to the brain that indicate brightness, color, and contour.
The first proto-eyes evolved among animals 540 million years ago.[1] Almost all animals have eyes, or descend from animals that did. In most vertebrates and some mollusks, the eye works by allowing light to enter it and project onto a light-sensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells (for color) and the rod cells (for low-light contrasts) in the retina detect and convert light into neural signals. The visual signals are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. Such eyes are typically roughly spherical, filled with a transparent gel-like substance called the vitreous humour, with a focusing lens and often an iris; the relaxing or tightening of the muscles around the iris change the size of the pupil, thereby regulating the amount of light that enters the eye,[2] and reducing aberrations when there is enough light.[3] |
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The ear is the sense organ that detects sounds. The vertebrate ear shows a common biology from fish to humans, with variations in structure according to order and species. It not only acts as a receiver for sound, but plays a major role in the sense of balance and body position. The ear is part of the auditory system.
The word "ear" may be used correctly to describe the entire organ or just the visible portion. In most animals, the visible ear is a flap of tissue that is also called the pinna. The pinna may be all that shows of the ear, but it serves only the first of many steps in hearing and plays no role in the sense of balance. In people, the pinna is often called the auricle. Vertebrates have a pair of ears, placed symmetrically on opposite sides of the head. This arrangement aids in the ability to localize sound sources. |
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