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| Carolingian Renaissance is a cultural and intellectual revival, which started during the reign of Charlemagne in the late 8th century and lasted until the breakup of Charlemagne’s empire at the end of the 9th century. It was fundamentally Christian as it was almost exclusively carried out by and for the clergy. However, it went beyond the churchly matters, reversed the cultural decay of the Dark Ages and laid the foundation for the rise of the Western civilization. |
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| He defeated the Moors in the Battle of Tours in 732, thus preventing the Moorish advancement from Spain. He was the illegitimate son of Pippin II. He ruled both Carolingian territories Austrasia and Neustria. He succeeded in reuniting the Frankish realm acquiring both Aquitaine and Burgundy. Although he was the ruler of these lands he never took the title of king. His title was mayor of the palace. During the Battle of Tours, the Muslim soldiers fought on horseback and his troops fought from the ground. He saw the value of the cavalry and developed his own cavalry. The tradition of the cavalry in France began with Charles Martel. When he died his lands were divided between his two legitimate sons. His son Pippin III was the father of Charlemagne. |
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| As king of the franks, Charles “the Great” united much of the Western Europe under his rule. In 800 he was crowned emperor by the pope in Rome, establishing a problematic precedent that would have wide-ranging consequences for Western Europe’s relationship with the eastern Roman Empire in Byzantium and for the relationship between the papacy and secular rulers. |
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| The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate disrupted Scandinavian commercial networks and turned traders into raiders (the word “Viking” describes the activity of raiding). These raids often escalated into invasions that contributed to the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, resulted in the devastation of settled territories, and ended with the established of Viking colonies. By the tenth century, Vikings controlled areas of eastern England, Scotland, the islands of Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, and parts of northern France. They had also established the beginnings of the kingdom that became Russia and made exploratory voyages to North America. |
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| A problematic modern term that attempts to explain the diffusion of power in medieval Europe, and the many different kids of political, social, and economic relationships that were forged through the giving and receiving of fiefs. Feudalism was based on the exchange of land for military service. King William the Conqueror used the concept of feudalism to reward his Norman supporters for their help in the conquest of England. Life lived under the Medieval Feudal System, or Feudalism, demanded that everyone owed allegiance to the King and their immediate superior. |
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| Duke of Normandy who laid claim to the throne of England in 1066, defeating the Anglo-Saxon King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. He and his Norman followers imposed imperial rule in England through a brutal campaign of military conquest, surveillance, and the defeat of the native Anglo-Saxon language. |
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| Ruling house of France from 987 to 1328, during the feudal period of the Middle Ages. By extending and uniting their power, the Capetian kings laid the foundation of the French nation-state. Also known as the House of France, is the largest and oldest European royal house, consisting of the descendants of King Hugh Capet of France in the male line. |
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| The Crusades were a series of Holy Wars launched by the Christian states of Europe against the Saracens. The term 'Saracen' was the word used to describe a Moslem during the time of the Crusades. The Crusades started in 1095 when Pope Claremont preached the First Crusade at the Council of Claremont. The Pope's preaching led to thousands immediately affixing the cross to their garments - the name Crusade given to the Holy Wars came from old French word 'crois' meaning 'cross'. The Crusades were great military expeditions undertaken by the Christian nations of Europe for the purpose of rescuing the holy places of Palestine from the hands of the Mohammedans. They were eight in number; the first four being sometimes called the Principal Crusades, and the remaining four the Minor Crusades. In addition there was a Children's Crusade. |
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| The “Great Charter” of 1215, enacted during the reign of King John of England and designed to limit his powers. Regarded now as a landmark in the development of constitutional government. In its own time its purpose was to restore the power of great lords. The Magna Carta protected the people’s rights and made sure that the king could not abuse his powers. Also known as the “Great Charter,” it guaranteed certain rights and liberties to all freeman of England regardless of their status. The Magna Carta was the first document to lay out human rights and because of that it was without question a revolutionary document. |
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| Known as John Lackland, was King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death. During John's reign, England lost the duchy of Normandy to King Philip II of France, which resulted in the collapse of most of the Angevin Empire and contributed to the subsequent growth in power of the Capetian dynasty during the 13th century. The grand revolt at the end of John's reign led to the signing of the Magna Carta, a document often considered to be an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom. |
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Papal monarchy is simply the head of the Catholic Church--the Pope and the Cardinals being the highest ranked in the hierarchy. The Catholic Church is an absolute elected monarchy; popes are chosen to head the church by a college of cardinals.
The Papal Monarchy was the temporal power of the Papacy. For a while, the Pope was the head of a nation, as well as head of a religion. This nation, called the 'Papal States', was actually a group of city-states that carried on their affairs as if fully independent, including Assisi, Urbino, and other towns. This polity lasted from the Dark Ages till about 1870, when taken over by the new nation of Italy. The Pope's rule over a nation was established again in 1922, with the foundation of Vatican City. |
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| European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools, in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century AD. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church, usually from cathedral schools or by papal bull as studia generalia, later they were also founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries. |
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| Was an Italian Dominican priest of the Roman Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived as a reaction against, or as an agreement with, his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory. Thomas is held in the Catholic Church to be the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood and he is considered the Church's greatest theologian and philosopher. |
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| A traveling people from the plains of central Asia who were united under the ruler Chingiz Khan. His conquest of China was continued by his grandson Kubilai and his great grandson Ogedei, whose army also seized southern Russia and then moved through Hungary and through Poland toward eastern Germany. The Mongol armies withdrew from Eastern Europe after the death of Ogedei, but his children continued to rule his vast empire for another half century. |
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| Ivan was not always terrible, after the loss of his mother and father he was looked after by nobleman who fought for power. He was treated with respect in public but was neglected in private. Abuse, violence and murder were common in the palace where he lived. This could be the reason for his hatred of the nobles. When crowned Czar of all Russia he revised the law code, created an elite standing army and introduced local self-management in rural regions. Ivan crushed the fortress of Kazan and then another one expanding Russia into Siberia. |
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| The epidemic of the bubonic plague that ravaged Europe, Asia, and North Africa in the fourteenth century. The plague hit the shores of Italy in 1348 unleashing death across Europe. By the time the epidemic played out over three years, anywhere between 25% and 50% of Europe’s population had fallen victim to the plague. The signs were nose bleeds, swellings in the groin or armpit that grew in size to a small apple or an egg. The tumors spread all over the body. Soon after black or purple spots appeared in the arms or thighs, these spots were a certain sign of death. |
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| The one Hundred Years War ranged from 1337-1453. All of the Battles of the Hundred Years War were fought in France. It was fought between England and France and later Burgundy, prompted by the territorial and political claims of English monarchs. The war was so famous and important to the history of England because the large number of sieges in the War led to the development of technology with new siege engines and the use of the longbow as an English weapon and the mounted knights came to an end. The war ended because the Wars of the Roses left England in no position to pursue war in France and so the War ended. |
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| Writer, was an English poet before William Shakespeare. Geoffrey Chaucer is known as the author of Canterbury Tales, which ranks as on of the greatest works of world literature. He also served with Edward III’s invading army in the Hundred Year’s War. While he was with the army, Chaucer was taken prisoner, and ransomed. Later in 1374 he was appointed controller of the customs for the Port of London; justice of the peace for Kent; he was elected to the Parliament; and then, he was the Deputy Forster in Somerset. With Chaucer’s connections, he traveled around the world. And with his experiences in court and in the army, he had plenty of material for some of his most well known works. |
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| It is believed that the Renaissance arose in 14th century Italy, as Europe was slowly emerging from the Middle Ages. Renaissance is from the French word “rebirth,” used to describe the artistic, intellectual, and cultural movement that emerged during this time. The renaissance was a revival of Classical learning and the arts. Some have suggested that the spread of the Black Death brought about a greater interest in life on Earth, as people were reminded of their humanity. During this time the invention of printing brought numerous scientists, artists, philosophers, poets, and writers during the Renaissance, including William Shakespeare, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Martin Luther, and Galileo, among many others. |
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| Humanism, the philosophy that people are rational beings. It became quite popular during the Renaissance. The dignity and worth of the individual was emphasized. This movement originated with the study of classical culture and a group of subjects known as humanities. Humanism included the studies of speaking, grammar, poetry, ethics and history. The humanist preference was to study them as much as possible in their original Lain text. The more training in these subjects prepared students to become doctors, lawyers and theologians. Humanism also place importance on individual’s responsibilities of citizenship and leadership. |
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| Leonardo da Vinci painted The Last Supper, one of his most well-known paintings. One of the most famous paintings in the world is, the Mona Lisa, he completed it sometime between 1505 and 1507. Like many leaders of Renaissance humanism, he did not see a divide between science and art. His observations and inventions were recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, including designs for flying machines, plant studies, war machinery, anatomy and architecture. His drawings of a fetus in utero, the heart and vascular system, sex organs, and other bone and muscular structures, are some of the first on human record. |
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| (1475-1564) A Florentine sculptor, painter, and poet who spent much of his career in the service of the papacy. He is best known for the decoration of the Sistine Chapel and for his monumental sculptures. He additionally painted The Last Judgment on the later wall of the same chapel many years later. His most famous sculptures included the 18 foot David and the Pieta. As an old man, the Pope asked him to complete the half-finished St. Peter’s Church in the Vatican. After his death architects built the dome still in use today. |
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| Raphael was a painter of the Italian “High Renaissance”, consider one of the greatest and most popular artists of all time. Unlike Leonardo and Michelangelo, Raphael lived a very short life, dying at the age of 38. He received early training in art from his father, Giovanni Santi. In 1499, he went to Perugia and became a student and assistant of the painter Perugino. Raphael imitated his master closely, and their painting styles are so similar that art historians have found difficulty determinging which were painted by Raphael, and which were by his master. |
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| John Calvin was one of the early church reformers, born in France in 1509. He was a deeply spiritual man whose brand of Protestantism that he later advocated, called Calvinism, was an effort to redefine the role of the church in daily life and the role of the individual’s relationship to God. His sudden conversion helped him to understand that he needed to follow a Protestant rather than a Catholic model in his own ministry. He was opposed to the hierarchy ministers had in the Catholic Church. However, he attacked anyone who disagreed with his ideas, much in the same way the Catholic Church he opposed frequently acted. |
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| Ulrich Zwingli insisted that the Bible, not the church, was the source of Christian truth, which made him a major force in the protestant Reformation that swept Europe in the 16th century. He proclaimed the Bible, not Catholic hierarchy and traditions, to be the sole sources of Christian authority, and persuaded leaders and churches that things not prescribed in the Bible had no place in the church’s life. In 1524, pictures, statues and relics were removed from the city’s churches. In 1529, Martin Luther argued that Christ was literally present in the bread and wine, while Zwingli held that it was a symbolic meal. Zwingli was later killed in battle where he refused a Catholic confessor and was killed by sword. |
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| An indulgence grants exempting Catholic Christians from the performance of penance, either in life or death. The abusive trade in indulgences was a major catalyst of the Protestant Reformation. In the Sacrament of Baptism not only is the guilt remitted, but also all the penalties attached to sin. |
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| Martin Luther was a German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called Lutherans. His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches. His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of church marriage, allowing Protestant priests to marry. In his later years, while suffering from several illnesses and deteriorating health, Luther became increasingly hostile towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed. |
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| The Bible makes it clear that salvation is by the grace alone. “For it is by grace you have been saved through faith. It is not from yourself or anything you’ve done, but the gift of God.” Salvation, therefore, is a free gift of grace from God. When a person accepts the gift of salvation, he or she is said to be made right with God. The process of being declared righteous is called justification. “Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ, and you will be saved.” (Acts 16:31) |
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| Prince Henry the Navigator |
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| About 1418, Prince Henry started the first school for oceanic navigation and in this school, people were trained in navigation, map-making, and science, in order to sail down the west of Africa. At this time, no Europeans had sailed past the treacherous Cape Bojador and returned alive. The Europeans called the ocean beyond that point the "Sea of Darkness." Most sailors refused to go there. Prince Henry convinced Gil Eannes to try, and Eannes succeeded in 1434. In 1458, Prince Henry sent Diogo Gomes (1440-1482) on an expedition that sailed as far as Cape Palmas. Prince Henry died in 1460, the year that this expedition returned. |
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| Conquistadors were soldiers, explorers, and adventurers at the service of the Spanish or Portuguese Empires. They sailed beyond Europe, conquering territory and opening trade routes. They colonized much of the world for Portugal and Spain in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. The leaders of these expeditions were called conquistadores. They brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th to 16th centuries. |
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| Explorer and navigator Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, Italy. His first voyage into the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 nearly cost him his life. Columbus participated in several other expeditions to Africa. 1492, Columbus left Spain in the Santa Maria, with the Pinta and the Niña along side. He has been credited for opening up the Americas to European colonization. |
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