Term
| loss of Banded Iron Formations and the appearance of redbeds |
|
Definition
• Banded Iron Formation (BIF) - Deep water deposits in which layers of iron-rich minerals alternate with iron-poor layers, primarily chert. Iron minerals include iron oxide, iron carbonate, iron silicate, iron sulfide. BIF's are a major source of iron ore, b/c they contain magnetite (Fe3O4) which has a higher iron-to-oxygen ratio than hematite. These are common in rocks 2.0 - 2.8 B.y. old, but do not form today.
• Red beds (continental siliciclastic deposits) are never found in rocks older than 2.3 B. y., but are common during Phanerozoic time. Red beds are red because of the highly oxidized mineral hematite (Fe2O3), that probably forms secondarily by oxidation of other Fe minerals that have accumulated in the sediment
• Conclusion - amount of O2 in the atmosphere has increased with time. |
|
|
Term
| chlorophyll and atmosphere |
|
Definition
| With the evolution of chlorophyll, primitive life forms were able to take in CO2 from the atmosphere and convert it to Oxygen as a bi-product. Over millions of years Oxygen was able to accumulate in the atmosphere making it habitable for many other life forms. |
|
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Term
| heat flow and greenstone belts |
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Definition
| During the Achaean, high heat flow beneath the earth’s crust caused small proto-continents called cratons to smash into each-other and form lager continents, creating greenstone belts in-between as a suture line. |
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Term
| Mesosaurus and Gondwanaland |
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Definition
| Fossils of Mesosaurus (one of the first marine reptiles, even older than the dinosaurs) were found in both South America and South Africa. These finds, plus the study of sedimentation and the fossil plant Glossopteris in these southern continents led Alexander duToit, a South African scientist, to bolster the idea of the past existence of a supercontinent in the southern hemisphere, Eduard Suess's Gondwanaland. This lent further support to A. Wegener's Continental Drift Theory |
|
|
Term
| coccolithophores and the Cliff’s of Dover |
|
Definition
| The cliffs are composed mainly of soft, white chalk with a very fine-grained texture, composed primarily of coccoliths, plates of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores, single-celled planktonic algae whose skeletal remains sank to the bottom of the ocean and, together with the remains of bottom-living creatures, formed sediments. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glossopteris flora and the theory of plate tectonics |
|
Definition
| The distribution of this fossil plant throughout the southern hemisphere led the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess to deduce that there had once been a land bridge between these areas. He named this large land mass Gondwanaland |
|
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Term
| Ring of Fire and subduction zones |
|
Definition
| Around the Ring of Fire, the Pacific Plate is colliding with and sliding underneath other plates. This process is known as subduction and the volcanically and seismically active area nearby is known as a subduction zone. There is a tremendous amount of energy created by these plates and they easily melt rock into magma, which rises to the surface as lava and forms volcanoes. |
|
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Term
| Ophiolite suite and subduction zones |
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Definition
| Sections of oceanic crust and upper mantle, along with sedimentary rocks deposited on the sea floor, emplaced as thrust slices onto continental lithosphere . This process, called obduction, results from continent-continent collision following subduction of oceanic crust and the closure of oceans or back-arc basins. While the continental crust is being subducted, the upper lithosphere is exposed, and ophiolitic volcanism accretes metamorphic rock series. As orogeny succeeds subduction, the ophiolites and their metamorphic basement end up atop mountain ranges. |
|
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Term
| detrital uraninite and pyrite and the composition of the early atmosphere |
|
Definition
| Further evidence of the lack of oxygen in the early atmosphere is provided by detrital uraninite and pyrite and by paleosols—i.e., fossil soils. Detrital uraninite and pyrite are readily oxidized in the presence of oxygen and thus do not survive weathering processes. |
|
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Term
| neoteny and human evolution |
|
Definition
| neoteny plays a role in evolution, as a means by which, over generations, a species can undergo a significant physical change. In such cases, a species’ neotenous form becomes its “normal” mature form, no longer dependent upon environmental triggers to inhibit maturity. Adult humans have similar features to juvenile chimps. |
|
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Term
| how do we know the age of the Earth? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| anoxic atmosphere in the Archean? |
|
Definition
| detrial uraninite, pyrite, and banded iron formation |
|
|
Term
| what is the proof of the abiotic origin of life? (3 examples) |
|
Definition
1. were synthesized from inorganic compounds in the atmosphere (Miller’s experiment)
2. rained down on earth from outer space (mars rocks)
3. were synthesized at hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor (black smokers) |
|
|
Term
| why was there a rise of oxygen in Ediacaran time? |
|
Definition
| Recent chemostratigraphic studies provide some evidence for progressive oxygenation of the Ediacaran ocean including mid-Ediacaran (ca. 580 Ma) deep waters. The first study based its inference mainly on increasing sulfur isotope fractionation between coexisting sulfides and carbonate-associated sulfate the second was based on the low ratios between highly reactive Fe and total Fe |
|
|
Term
| How and why are the planets beyond asteroid belt different from those in board of the asteroid belt? |
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Definition
| Planets beyond the asteroid belt are mainly composed of gas such as Hydrogen and Helium because they are lighter elements and were thrown out far into the solar system when the sun was born, and the heavier elements were only pushed to the inner solar system, with the asteroid belt marking its boundary. |
|
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Term
| Define Uniformitarianism and Actualism |
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Definition
| Uniformitarianism says that the Earth was formed by slow processes over billions of years. Actualism combines uniformitarianism with catastrophism and says that the Earth did form by slow geologic process but at times there were instant global altering events. |
|
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Term
| List and define Steno’s three principles |
|
Definition
-THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
* In a sequence of strata, any stratum is younger than the sequence of strata on which it rests, and is older than the strata that rest upon it.
-PRINCIPLE OF INITIAL HORIZONTALITY
* Strata are deposited horizontally and then deformed to various attitudes later.
-PRINCIPLE OF STRATA CONTINUITY
* Strata can be assumed to have continued laterally far from where they presently end.
-PRINCIPLE OF CROSS CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS
* Things that cross-cut layers probably postdate them. |
|
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Term
| What differentiates the Phanerozoic from the pre-Cambrian? |
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Definition
| First trilobites and archaeocyatha appear; at the first appearance of a complex feeding burrow called Treptichnus pedum; or at the first appearance of a group of small, generally disarticulated, armored forms termed 'the small shelly fauna'. |
|
|
Term
| How does oceanic crust differ from continental crust? |
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Definition
| Oceanic crust is composed of more mafic basalt which is more dense then the felsic continental crust. |
|
|
Term
| Define and be able to identify the major types of unconformities |
|
Definition
Disconformity The beds below an eroded surface are undisturbed, and only the irregular surface between the upper and lower bodies of rock reveals a past episode of erosion.
Nonconformity A nonconformity exists between sedimentary rocks and metamorphic or igneous rocks when the sedimentary rock lies above and was deposited on the pre-existing and eroded metamorphic or igneous rock. Namely, if the rock below the break is igneous or has lost its bedding by metamorphism, the plane of juncture is a nonconformity.
Angular unconformity When a group of rocks has been tilted and eroded and younger rocks have been deposited on top of them.
Nonconformity Bedded rocks rest on an eroded surface of crystalline rocks. |
|
|
Term
| What criteria are needed for preservation of soft parts? How likely is this to occur? |
|
Definition
It requires burial in an oxygen poor environment or in fine grained sediment.
-frozen in ice, preserved in tar pit, preserved in amber |
|
|
Term
| What types of unique conditions can Archaebacteria tolerate? |
|
Definition
| They can tolerate extremely high temperatures, low or no oxygen, acidic or salty conditions. |
|
|
Term
| What are the criteria of an Index Fossil? |
|
Definition
| An index fossil must be of a rapidly evolving organism that only existed for a specific period of time, is easily recognizable, is abundantly preserved, and was widespread geographically |
|
|
Term
| Explain why Radiocarbon Dating has limited usefulness in geology. |
|
Definition
| Radiocarbon dating can only be used on specimens no older than 60000 yrs. |
|
|
Term
| Define and differentiate and give an example of group that represents the following terms: |
|
Definition
Horotely- A normal or average rate of evolution. (Horses)
Tachytely – A very fast rate of evolution. (Elephants)
Bradytely- A very slow rate of evolution. (Coelacanth) |
|
|
Term
| What are the hypothesized steps in the differentiation of the Earth’s interior and exterior? |
|
Definition
| When Earth was a molten planet during the Haeden, the denser elements such as Iron sank to the core, and lighter minerals cooled on top. Forming layers of various elements. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how the Miller Experiment and how it helps us understand the beginning of Life on Earth. How does clay play a role in this process? |
|
Definition
| Using elements found in the early Earth, Miller used water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen and stimulated them with electrodes to produce amino acids. This shows that life could have been started up by inorganic compounds. Clay may have acted as a catalyst for the amino acids to stick together and form on. |
|
|
Term
| What do meteorites tell us about the composition of the solar system? |
|
Definition
| Meteorites tell us about what planets are made up of in particular the cores of planets. They also provide clues as to how meteor impacts created Earth in the early solar system. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation |
|
Definition
Allopatric - In this mode of speciation, something extrinsic to the organisms prevents two or more groups from mating with each other regularly, eventually causing that lineage to speciate. Isolation might occur because of great distance or a physical barrier, such as a desert or river.
Sympatric - does not require large-scale geographic distance to reduce gene flow between parts of a population. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A “motherload,’ area of many abundant fossils like the burgess shale and the chengjuan fauna. |
|
|
Term
| What drove the evolution of skeletons? |
|
Definition
(1) protection against ultraviolet radiation, allowing animals to move into shallower waters
(2) prevent drying out in an intertidal environment
(3) protection against predators |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Periods of evolutionary stability, such as in trilobite faunas during the Cambrian. |
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of the Wopmay Orogeny? When did it occur? What does it tell us about the size of continental landmasses at this time? |
|
Definition
| It is the earliest modern style orogeny which tells us that proto-continents were beginning to form large cratons. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the evolution of Eukaryotes using diagrams |
|
Definition
| Prokaryotes cell ingest another, and become symbiotic to one another. |
|
|
Term
| What is the significance of complex trace fossils in the preCambrian Belt Group? |
|
Definition
| Rifted Rodinia, late Precambrian, soft body organisms are getting large enough to modify their environment. |
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of the Ediacaran fauna? |
|
Definition
| It is the latest Precambrian – soft body group of sea floor organisms, no predators around to eat them, first large fossils. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the difference between the Flysch and Molasse phases of sedimentation during orogenies. |
|
Definition
| Flysch phase is the early synorganic deposition of geosynclinals troughs, Mollase phase is the late deposition of organic clastic wedges in the linear fore-deep on the flank of a craton. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how trilobites prove the accretion of exotic terrains to the eastern margin of North America. Name the genus of trilobite. |
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Definition
| Peridoxites native to areas in Europe were found in Boston, which shows that portions of the other continent got stuck to North America when the plates collided. |
|
|
Term
| What type of orogeny is the Taconic Orogeny? |
|
Definition
| Peripheral foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between Stromatolites and Stromatoporoids? |
|
Definition
| Stromatoporoids are reef building sponges, stromatolites are microbial mats, layers of sediment accumulated and cemented by organisms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Any of several groups of extinct, primitive, jawless fishes that were covered in an armor of bony plates. |
|
|
Term
| What are Sepkoski’s three evolutionary faunas? What taxa compose the Paleozoic Fauna? |
|
Definition
| Paleozoic, Cambrian, Modern Paleozoic – crinoids, brachiopods, cephalopods, tabulate and rugose corals, blastoids |
|
|
Term
| Explain the hypothesized causes for the two steps of the end Ordovician Mass Extinction. |
|
Definition
| It got very cold, then got very warm. Each climate change killed of those adapted to the other. |
|
|
Term
| Explain why the Michigan Basin contains large amounts of evaporates during the Silurian. |
|
Definition
| There was a drop in sea level, which caused the dissolution of minerals like salt which were left behind in the basin. |
|
|
Term
| What was the dominant predator of the Silurian? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why do we see a wedge-shaped package of sediment thickest in the east that formed during the Devonian in New York State? |
|
Definition
| Acadian orogeny formed a clastic wedge deposited in a retro arc foreland basin known as the Catskill delta. |
|
|
Term
| List and describe two possible reasons for widespread black shale deposits during the Devonian. |
|
Definition
| High sea level drowns reefs and buries organic matter with little to no oxygen, and stratification of the ocean floor from high salinity. |
|
|
Term
| What type of basin formed during the Acadian Orogeny? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do the White Mountains of New Hampshire relate to the Acadian Orogeny? |
|
Definition
| Overriding Acadian plate formed a magmatic arc on the edge of North America. |
|
|
Term
| How do the White Mountains of New Hampshire relate to the Acadian Orogeny? |
|
Definition
| Overriding Acadian plate formed a magmatic arc on the edge of North America. |
|
|
Term
| What type of basin formed during the Antler Orogeny? |
|
Definition
| peripheral foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| When was the time period on Earth with the largest reefs ever? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What types of brachiopods were dominant during the Ordovician? Silurian? Devonian? Carboniferous? |
|
Definition
Ordovician – Orthida, Stromatoporida
Silurian – Speriferida, Pentamerida
Devonian – Atrypid, Speriferida
Carboniferous – Productides |
|
|
Term
| When did amonoids first appear? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What interesting patterns do we see with trilobite morphology during the Devonian? What might have been driving these patterns? |
|
Definition
| The development of spikes and spines on their bodies which would have protected them from predators. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the evolution of jaws in fish. |
|
Definition
| The gradual modification of 3rd and 4th gill arch supports. |
|
|
Term
| What different types of fish were around during the Devonian? |
|
Definition
| Agnathids, placoderms, stracoderms, acanthodians |
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of the Gilboa Forest? |
|
Definition
| The earliest complete terrestrial ecosystem. |
|
|
Term
| What major changes occur in the terrestrial environment during the Devonian? |
|
Definition
| - Archaeopteris trees – first large trees, vascular plants invade land |
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of the recently discovered fossil Tiktallik? |
|
Definition
| It is a transitionary organism from lobe finned fish to amphibians. |
|
|
Term
| List and explain the differences between the major orogenies the formed the Appalachian Mountains. |
|
Definition
- Taconic Orogeny – peripheral foreland basin, NA under oceanic crust
- Acadian Orogeny- retroarc foreland basin, NA overrides Acadian plate
- Alganian Orogeny – retroarc foreland basin, NA rides over portions of Africa, final folding and metamorphism |
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|
Term
| Be able to explain a diagram of a cyclothem, specifically what types of sediment occur where in the cycle and what causes the observed patterns in sedimentation. |
|
Definition
| Worldwide rise and fall of sea level, spasmatic tectonic up and down motions cause cyclic climate changes |
|
|
Term
| Explain the process of coal formation. |
|
Definition
| Organic plant material is deposited in an anoxic environment and then compressed, peat – lignite – canal coal – bitumous coal – anthracite coal |
|
|
Term
| What major taxonomic group dominated the sea floor during the Mississippian? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain the ecological variation seen in Carboniferous plants (what types of plants lived in what environments, i.e. wet vs. dry). |
|
Definition
| In wet coal swamps there were lycopsids, ferns and scalybarked trees. In the dry areas there were cordaints, sphenopsids, and gymnosperms. |
|
|
Term
| Why could insect attain such great sizes during the Carboniferous? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the age of the oldest reptiles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What evidence is there for a cool climate in the Lower Permian? |
|
Definition
| Glacial expansions and fossilized trees at high latitudes. |
|
|
Term
| What major group of arthropods went extinct at the end of the Permian? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three major Floras of the Permian? How are they related to latitude? |
|
Definition
| Uramerican – tropical latitudes (equator), Glosopteris – southern, Siberian- northern latitudes. |
|
|
Term
| What percentage of marine taxa went extinct at the end Permian mass extinction? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What caused the two separate pulses of extinction at the end Permian? |
|
Definition
| Global cooling and climatic instability in the Guadalupian, and the largest episode of basaltic eruptions at the end of the Permian. |
|
|
Term
| When did Pangaea begin to break up? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What types of deposits are preserved along the East Coast of North America associated with the early stages of formation of the Atlantic Ocean? |
|
Definition
| There was rifting of continental crust, and deposits of arkosic conglomerates and sandstones, overlain by mafic igneous intrusions like basalt. |
|
|
Term
| What two major orogenies occurred in the Triassic on the western margins of North and South America? |
|
Definition
| Sanomian – peripheral foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| What type of ammonoid was dominant in the Triassic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do we know about the feeding habits of Placodonts? How do we know this? |
|
Definition
| They used there round blunted teeth called beunadont teeth to crush various shell fish like bivalves and brachiopods. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two main groups of Dinosaurs? What is used to differentiate between the groups? |
|
Definition
| Ornithician and sauriscian differentiated by their hip structure. |
|
|
Term
| What evidence is there for aridity during the early Jurassic in North America? |
|
Definition
| Massive sandstone deposits. |
|
|
Term
| What is special about Archaeopteryx? |
|
Definition
| It is a transitionary organism between dinosaurs and birds, displays traits of both. |
|
|
Term
| From which major group of Dinosaurs did Birds evolve? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Stomach stones, which are stones ingested by large dinosaurs used to help in breaking up all the plant material they eat. |
|
|
Term
| When were Ichthyosaurs dominant? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of animals built large reefs during the Cretaceous? (this animal normally doesn’t build reefs) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| styles and dates of Taconic |
|
Definition
| mid late Ordovician, east coast, peripheral foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| styles and dates of Acadian |
|
Definition
| Devonian, east coast, retroarc foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| styles and dates of Antler |
|
Definition
| late Devonian, west coast, peripheral foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| styles and dates of Alleghanian |
|
Definition
| Carboniferous, east coast, retroarc foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| styles and dates of Sanomian |
|
Definition
| Triassic, west coast, peripheral foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| styles and dates of Sevier |
|
Definition
| Jurassic, west coast, retroarc foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| styles and dates of Nevadian |
|
Definition
| Cretaceous, west coast, retroarc foreland basin |
|
|
Term
| When did the largest turtles live? When did the largest flying animals ever live? |
|
Definition
Largest turtles – cretaceous, Arkelon
Largest birds – cretaceous, pterosaurs like quetsequatalus |
|
|
Term
| When did flowering plants radiate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| List at least four lines of evidence for a major collision of an extra terrestrial body with the Earth at the end of the Cretaceous. |
|
Definition
1) Chicksalu crater in Yucatan Peninsula
2) Shocked quartz grains
3) Iridium found in KT boundary
4) Striated dolomite
5) Microtectites |
|
|
Term
| What element is found in great abundance at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary? How does this element support the theory of an extra terrestrial impact? |
|
Definition
| Iridium, because it is an element found in meteorites, not native to Earth |
|
|
Term
| What evidence is there for a warm early Paleogene? |
|
Definition
| Melting of frozen glaciers, and the oxygen isotope record in marine organisms |
|
|
Term
| When did the largest sharks ever live? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happened to the number of toes on horses as they evolved? |
|
Definition
| They lost their outer toes |
|
|
Term
| What types of animals replaced raptorial dinosaurs as one of the top land predators in the Paleogene? |
|
Definition
| Giant flightless birds replaced the dinosaurs. |
|
|
Term
| When did the uplift of the Colorado Plateau occur? What type of tectonic activity was associated with this uplift? |
|
Definition
| Early Neogene, basin and range province due to rifting. |
|
|
Term
| What was the Great American Interchange? |
|
Definition
| North and South American mammals evolved separately, mostly marsupials in the south. Then the Panamanian land bridge allowed for migration. |
|
|
Term
| What major factor lead to the build-up of glaciers in Antarctica? |
|
Definition
| Cold circumpolar current goes around Antarctica and keeps the warm water out. Also, because being in the South Pole meant less direct sun light. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 lines of evidence for major glaciation at the end of the Neogene? |
|
Definition
1) erratics
2) glacial scouring
3) lowering of sea level
4) kettle lakes and till
5) migration of species in front of ice sheet
6) lowering of land |
|
|
Term
| How does the modern day distribution of Gorillas in Africa support climate change during the late Neogene? |
|
Definition
| At one time, gorillas were found in forests that spanned between two habitats in Africa. Then a climatic drying event reduced their environments down to two separate sub areas, and even when the forests came back they remained separated and would not interbreed. |
|
|
Term
| What are Prairie Potholes? |
|
Definition
| Kettle lakes which formed after an ice block that was surrounded by sediment had melted and the result is a hole in the ground that fills with water. |
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