Term
How do homones initate their effects on target cells?
Amino Acids |
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Definition
| bind to extracellular receptors to activate intracellular second messengers, like cyclic AMP, to cause their effects |
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Term
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Definition
| transverse the cell membrane, enter the cell and nucleus, and bind to hormone response elements on chromatin (tightly coiled DNA) to initiate protein synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| transport nutrients, waste products, hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| maintains pH and water content of body fluids, maintains body temperature |
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Term
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Definition
| prevents blood loss from injury via blood coagulation, defends body from pathogens via phagocytosis |
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Term
| What is the pH range of blood? |
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Definition
| typical pH range is 7.35-7.45 |
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Term
(Specific types of formed elements)
Erythrocytes |
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Definition
| blood cells that contain hemoglobin; function to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide; cell membranes are strong and flexible which allows them to fold/change shape without rupturing; these cells lack a nucleus and cytoplasmic granules |
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Term
(Specific types of formed elements)
Leukocytes |
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Definition
| blood cells do not contain hemoglobin; function in phagocytosis to defend the body from pathogens, initiate immune reactions, and respond to inflammatory reactions; these cells do have a nucleus and cytoplasmic granules |
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Term
(Specific types of formed elements)
Thrombocytes |
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Definition
| cell fragments of megakaryocytic;function in hemostasis (reactions that stop blood loss from damaged.injured sites) via platelet plug formation and blood coagulation; these cell fragments contain cytoplasmic vesicles but no nucleus |
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Term
(Hemostatic defense mechanism of Body)
Vascular Spasm |
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Definition
| when an artery/ arteriole sustains microscopic damage/injury, smooth muscle tissue of tunica media contracts to decrease the diameter of the vessel, which reduces blood loss from the vessel for a short periled of time. |
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Term
(Hemostatic defense mechanism of Body)
Platelet plug Formation |
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Definition
| when a vessel sustains microscopic damage/injury, platelets begin to stick/adhere together and release chemicals as they interact together causing them to become sticky and accumulate/aggregate at the damaged site. This process occurs simultaneously with vascular spasm |
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Term
(Hemostatic defense mechanism of Body)
Blood Coagulation |
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Definition
| is a complex cascade of enzymatic reactions that causes fibrin (protein) to develop in the blood, which thickens the blood, leading to the formation of clots to prevent blood loss from the body |
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Term
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Definition
| thin layer of cardiac muscle tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| thick layer of cardiac muscle tissue; left ventricle has thicker myocardium than right ventricle |
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Term
| Why is Myocardial thickness important? |
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Definition
| Thicker myocardium contains more cardiac muscle tissue, which is capable of generating more force and pressure to pump blood to greater distances in the body |
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Term
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Definition
| myocardium of heart wall is contracting |
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Term
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Definition
| myocardium of hear wall is relaxed |
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Term
| Atrioventricular (AV)Valves |
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Definition
| these valves are located between the atria and ventricles; they open in response to atrial systole when pressure in the atria is high to allow blood to move form atria into ventricles; when these valves are open the SL valves are closed. |
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Term
| Semilunar valves (SL)Valves |
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Definition
| theses valves are located between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk and left ventricle and aorta; they open in response to ventricular systole when pressure in the ventricles is high to allow blood to move form the ventricles into the pulmonary trunk and aorta; when these valves are open, the AV valves are closed. |
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Term
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Definition
| the first small wave on the EKG; it results form electrical conduction of cardiac muscle fibers from the SA node through the atria, where atrial systole occurs about 0.1 sec after the ___ wave. |
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Term
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Definition
| – the QRS complex results from ventricular depolarization (electrical conduction of cardiac muscle fibers in the ventricular myocardium) at the apex of the heart, which causes ventricular systole |
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Term
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Definition
| results from ventricular repolarization when the cardiac muscle fibers in the ventricular myocardium are resting |
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Term
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Definition
| this interval occurs from the beginning of atrial excitation to the beginning of ventricular excitation; it includes atrial depolarization and atrial systole as well as ventricular depolarization and systole |
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Term
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Definition
| indicates depolarization and systole of the entire ventricular myocardium |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs from the beginning of ventricular depolarization (electrical excitation of ventricular myocardium) through ventricular repolarization (rest of ventricular myocardium) |
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Term
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Definition
| innermost tissue layer of all blood-vessel walls composed of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium); functions to reduce friction as blood passes through the lumen of the vessel |
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Term
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Definition
| – middle tissue layer of arteries and veins composed of smooth muscle tissue; this tissue layer is thickest in arteries and very thin in veins; functions to contract in arteries to regulate blood flow and blood pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| – outermost tissue layer of arteries and veins composed of collagen and elastic fibers; functions in protection and support |
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Term
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Definition
| large diameter blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart; elastic arteries are located close to the heart and have an abundance of elastic fibers in the tunica media, which allow them to expand/stretch and recoil rapidly under high blood pressure; muscular arteries are located far from the heart and have an abundance of smooth muscle tissue in the tunica media, which allows them to vasoconstrict/vasodilate to regulate and distribute blood to areas of the body |
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Term
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Definition
| – small-diameter branches of arteries that function to deliver blood from arteries to capillaries |
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Term
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Definition
| – microscopic blood vessels that function to exchange substances between the blood and body cells; the walls of these vessels are extremely thin (composed of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)) and are permeable to facilitate the exchange of substances; the blood pressure in these vessels is low and it slowly decreases as blood flows through them |
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Term
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Definition
| small-diameter branches of veins that extend from capillaries; venules function to drain blood from capillaries and deliver it to veins |
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Term
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Definition
| large diameter blood vessels that form when venules unite together; veins function under very low blood pressure to carry blood back to the heart; they contain valves that aid in the venous return of blood to the heart and prevent back flow blood in the vessel |
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Term
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Definition
| – is a passive process that involves the movement of substances down a concentration gradient (substances move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration) across capillary walls into or out of capillaries; EX: oxygen and carbon dioxide move into/out of blood via diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
| – involves the movement of substances within vesicles from the blood plasma across capillary walls via endocytosis/exocytosis; EX: proteins/hormones can move into/out of capillaries via this exchange mechanism |
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Term
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Definition
| is a passive process that moves large amounts of substances/solutes in the same direction and the movement of these substances/solutes occurs due to differences between hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures; hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood and interstitial fluid on capillary walls; colloid osmotic pressure is the pressure exerted by the solutes |
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Term
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Definition
| – type of bulk flow that involves fluid moving from the blood across capillary walls into the interstitial fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| type of bulk flow that involves fluid moving from the interstitial fluid across capillary walls into the blood |
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Term
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Definition
| is hydrostatic pressure exerted by the blood on systemic arterial walls during ventricular systole; high blood pressure will cause blood flow to increase; low blood pressure will cause blood flow to decrease |
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Term
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Definition
| – occurs due to the friction between the blood and the walls of blood vessels; an increase in vascular resistance causes blood flow to decrease; factors affecting vascular resistance are the diameter of the blood-vessel lumen, blood viscosity, and total blood vessel length |
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Term
| Diameter of blood-vessel lumen |
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Definition
| vascular resistance increases as the diameter of the lumen decreases |
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Term
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Definition
| vascular resistance increases as blood viscosity increases |
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Term
| Total blood vessel length |
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Definition
| vascular resistance increases as blood vessel length increases |
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Term
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Definition
| – oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle of the heart and enters the aorta to be distributed to the tissues and organs of the body via systemic arteries; deoxygenated blood from the tissues and organs of the body returns to the heart via the systemic veins |
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Term
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Definition
| deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart and enters the pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries to be delivered to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated; oxygenated blood from the lungs travels back to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary veins |
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Term
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Definition
| – oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle of heart, enters the aorta, then enters the coronary arteries to be delivered to the myocardium of the heart wall; deoxygenated blood from the myocardium is returned to the right atrium of the heart via the coronary veins |
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Term
| Hepatic portal circulation |
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Definition
| – deoxygenated blood leaves the GI organs (i.e. stomach, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine) and spleen to be delivered to the liver, so hepatocytes can store/modify substances before allowing them to enter the systemic circulation |
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Term
| Returns substances to blood |
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Definition
| lymphatic vessels/lymph return excess water and molecules (i.e. plasma proteins, fats) to venous blood, which helps maintain fluid volume of blood and tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| lymphatic vessels/lymph transport substances (i.e. water, molecules, pathogens, cancer cells, cell debris) to lymph nodes to be catabolized and removed from the body |
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Term
| Initiates immune responses |
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Definition
| lymphatic cells, tissues, and organs respond to antigens (i.e. bacteria, viruses, cancer cells, transplanted cells, cellular debris) to initiate immune responses (i.e. identify and catabolize antigens) |
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Term
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Definition
| lymphocytes and phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) respond to, attack, and catabolize antigens |
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Term
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Definition
| T cells and B cells; these cells respond to specific antigens by producing specific receptors that respond to these antigens; it’s important that these cells develop self-tolerance, so they don’t attack and destroy each other due to the various receptors they have on their cell surfaces; lymphocytes typically migrate in lymphatic tissues to perform surveillance roles, so they may not reside in the lymphatic tissue permanently |
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Term
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Definition
| – become immunocompetent and self-tolerant in the thymus; naïve T cells (those that are immunocompetent but have not been exposed to antigens) are transported in the lymph to lymph nodes where antigen exposure typically occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| become immunocompetent and self-tolerant in the red bone marrow; naïve B cells (those that are immunocompetent but have not been exposed to antigens) are transported in the lymph to lymph nodes where antigen exposure typically occurs; activated B cells will form plasma cells and plasma cells function to produce/secrete antibodies |
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Term
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Definition
| – cells that phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells; macrophages that help activate T cells are called dendritic cells, which are antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells engulf antigens and present fragments of them to T cells) |
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Term
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Definition
| microscopic blood vessels that are more permeable than blood capillaries due to their flap-like mini valves that allow large substances to enter the vessel; these vessels function under a very low blood pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| – largest lymphatic organ composed of red pulp and white pulp; red pulp functions to catabolize old erythrocytes and blood-borne pathogens; white pulp functions as a site for lymphocyte proliferation (growth), lymphocyte surveillance of antigens, and lymphocyte-mediated immune responses |
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Term
| A Immature lymphocytes (T cells and B cells) |
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Definition
| are formed in the red bone marrow |
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Term
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Definition
| Area where T cells become immunocompetent |
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Term
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Definition
| Area where B cells becomes immunocompetent |
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Term
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Definition
| Area that contains immunocompetent T cells and B cells, where many antigens are present |
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Term
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Definition
| – Area where activated T cells and B cells recirculate |
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Term
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Definition
| – activate in response to antigens and begin producing clones; these clones will develop into plasma cells and memory cells; plasma cells function to produce and secrete antibodies that are specific to the antigen |
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Term
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Definition
| any cell or chemical that the body considers foreign; EX: microbes/pathogens (bacteria, protozoa, fungi, parasitic worms), viruses, cancer cells, transplanted cells, proteins, nucleic acids; antigens cause immune responses to be initiated by lymphatic cells |
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Term
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Definition
| – protein structures produced and secreted by plasma cells (plasma cells form from activated B cells); they are proteins composed of heavy and light polypeptide chains; these chains are held together by disulfide bonds (strong bonds); antibodies have antigen- binding sites, where the antibody binds to a specific antigen to “tag” it during immune responses |
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Term
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Definition
| is breathing; it involves inhalation and exhalation; it depends on volume and pressure changes in the thoracic cavity |
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Term
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Definition
| – thoracic cavity expands causing intrapulmonary pressure (pressure in the alveoli) to be less than atmospheric pressure (pressure exerted by the external air on the body); this negative pressure difference allows air to enter the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| – thoracic cavity decreases in size causing intrapulmonary pressure to be greater than atmospheric pressure; this positive pressure difference forces air out of the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| – involves external respiration and internal respiration |
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries; blood is gaining oxygen and losing carbon dioxide; exchange of gases occurs due to the partial pressure gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide (during inhalation, oxygen in alveoli increases, so pressure gradient of oxygen is high in alveoli and low in the blood; this causes oxygen to move from alveoli into blood) |
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood in capillaries and body cells; blood is losing oxygen and gaining carbon dioxide; exchange of gases occurs due to partial pressure gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide |
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Term
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Definition
| function to exchange oxygen in the air with carbon dioxide in the blood; they provide a massive surface area for gas exchange to take place; alveolar walls are composed of type I cells (simple squamous epithelial cells) and type II cells that function to produce and secrete surfactant; surfactant prevents the alveoli from collapsing because it decreases the surface tension between the water molecules in the alveolar fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| – process of taking in foods/fluids into mouth |
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Term
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Definition
| ability of cells to secrete substances (i.e. water, enzymes, acids) necessary for digestion |
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Term
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Definition
| – peristaltic contractions of digestive organs that mix and move food, fluids, and secretions through the digestive tract |
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Term
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Definition
| – process of breaking down ingested food into small molecules that can be absorbed; involves mechanical digestion and chemical digestion |
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Term
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Definition
| physical act of chewing/swallowing and muscle contractions involved in moving and mixing food, fluids, and secretions |
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Term
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Definition
| enzymatic reactions that break chemical bonds of food molecules to digest them |
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Term
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Definition
| process of digested food molecules passing from the lumen of the GI tract into the blood to be circulated throughout the body |
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Term
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Definition
| process of eliminating feces (solid waste) from the body |
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Term
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Definition
| fluid secreted by salivary glands; functions to moisten food, which aids in bolus formation, dissolves food so food molecules can be tasted, consists of enzymes that attack microbes in the mouth, and consists of amylases (digestive enzymes) that function to begin starch digestion in the mouth |
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Term
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Definition
| food bolus is forced into the oropharynx by the tongue |
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Term
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Definition
| food bolus stimulates oropharynx; UES relaxes and bolus moves from the pharynx into the esophagus |
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Term
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Definition
| food bolus enters esophagus; peristalsis of the esophagus occurs to move the bolus toward the stomach; LES relaxes and bolus moves from the esophagus into the stomach |
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Term
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Definition
| enzymes that digest starches |
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Term
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Definition
| enzymes that digest triglycerides |
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Term
| Pepsin/Trypsin/Peptidases |
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Definition
| enzymes that digest proteins |
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Term
| Nucleosidases/Phosphatases |
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Definition
| enzymes that digest nucleotides |
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Term
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Definition
| digestive organ that functions to finalize chemical digestion and absorbs substances from food in their smallest form; intestinal juice is secreted into the ________ as chyme moves through it causing distention of the organ; peristalsis (muscular contractions that move chyme through organ), segmentations (muscular contractions that mix chyme with secretions), and secretion of brush- border enzymes are necessary for digestion to occur in the__________. |
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Term
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Definition
| biochemical reactions that result in catabolism and anabolism |
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Term
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Definition
| – biochemical process that digests/breaks down large substances into small molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| biochemical process that assimilates/builds up substances from small molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| – biochemical process performed by cells that involves catabolism of food molecules and synthesis of ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to elevated blood-glucose levels; functions to act on tissue cells causing them to absorb glucose from the blood; this occurs during the absorptive state of metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
| – kidneys regulate blood volume, blood pressure, blood-ion concentration, and blood osmolarity (solute concentration in the blood) |
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Term
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Definition
| kidneys produce urine to remove metabolic wastes, excess water and ions, and drug metabolites from the blood |
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Term
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Definition
| filtration of blood plasma via glomerular capillaries; water/solutes move from the blood across capillary walls into capsular space of Bowman’s capsule; filtration is governed by glomerular hydrostatic pressure (pressure exerted by the blood in the capillaries causing water/solutes to be pushed/forced out of blood into capsular space) |
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Term
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Definition
| reabsorption of solutes and water from filtrate as filtrate passes through the renal tubule; reabsorbed solutes and water are returned to the blood; antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is necessary for water permeability and water reabsorption via the collecting duct (ADH causes the production of concentrated urine); dilute urine is formed when the collecting duct is impermeable to water |
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Term
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Definition
| secretion of solutes (i.e. metabolic wastes, drug metabolites, excess potassium ions, and excess hydrogen ions) from tubular cells into filtrate as filtrate passes through the renal tubule |
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Term
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Definition
| acts on cells of renal tubule to reabsorb sodium ions from the filtrate; sodium ions are returned to the blood to maintain sodium-ion concentration in the extracellular fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| – gametes (sex cells) formed via meiosis; genetically-different cells; contain the same number of chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| highly adapted cells designed to move and penetrate the secondary oocyte (mature egg); composed of a head and tail; the head is covered with an acrosome, which contains enzymes (i.e proteases and acrosin), that function to break down the protect layers surrounding the egg allowing penetration to occur; the tail contains microtubules, which allow it to move; about half of the mature sperm produced have one X sex chromosome or one Y sex chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| – function to support and protect developing sperm cells, provide nutrients to developing sperm, phagocytize cellular debris, controls movement of spermatids into lumen of seminiferous tubules, and produces/secretes fluid for sperm transport in the seminiferous tubules |
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Term
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Definition
| – function to secrete testosterone in response to LH |
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Term
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Definition
| hormone secreted from the hypothalamus beginning at puberty; hormone acts on cells of the anterior pituitary to stimulate secretion of LH and FSH; GnRH is secreted in males and females |
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Term
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Definition
| hormone secreted from the cells of the anterior pituitary; LH is secreted in males and females |
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Term
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Definition
| – LH acts on Leydig cells in the testes causing them to secrete testosterone |
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Term
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Definition
| – LH acts on the ovaries stimulating the development of the ovarian follicles, stimulating the secretion of estrogens from the ovarian follicles, triggering ovulation, and promoting the formation of the corpus luteum |
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Term
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Definition
| – hormone secreted from the cells of the anterior pituitary; FSH is secreted in males and females |
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Term
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Definition
| – FSH acts on Sertoli cells in the testes causing them to secrete ABP; ABP functions to bind to testosterone so testosterone levels remain high in the testes to stimulate spermatogenesis (sperm production) |
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Term
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Definition
| – FSH acts on the ovaries stimulating the development of immature oocytes, stimulating the secretion of estrogens from the ovarian follicles, and converting androgens into estrogens |
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Term
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Definition
| process that unites the egg and sperm; leads to the development of a zygote (first cell of the individual) |
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Term
| Uterine (Fallopian) tubes |
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Definition
| tubular organs that function to receive the ovulated oocyte and provide the site for fertilization to occur |
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Term
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Definition
| if fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum will remain in the ovary until the placenta forms; if fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum will degenerate and become the corpus albicans |
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Term
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Definition
| – if fertilization occurs, progesterone (secreted from the corpus luteum) prepares the endometrium for implantation of the fertilized egg; if fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone levels decline, and the stratum functionalis of the endometrium will be discharged during menses |
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Term
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Definition
| process that enhances sperm motility, membrane fragility, and allows enzyme release from the acrosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| union of egg and sperm in the Fallopian tube, which leads to the formation of the zygote (first cell of the new individual) |
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Term
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Definition
| – process that leads to the development of a morula (cluster of 16 or more cells) then blastocyst (sphere of more than 100 cells) after the zygote forms |
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Term
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Definition
| – process that embeds the blastocyst into the stratum functionalis of the endometrium |
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Term
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Definition
| process that leads to the development of the primary germ layers (endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm) in the embryo after implantation |
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Term
| Know specific substances exchanged between mother and fetus via the placenta |
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Definition
| Nutrients, waste products, hormones, respiratory gases, and lipophilic substances (i.e. alcohol) are exchanged via the placenta. |
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Term
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Definition
| of the uterus contracts to push the fetus out of the body through the vaginal canal. |
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Term
| Know how the uterus functions during labor and childbirth: |
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Definition
| Myometrium of the uterus contracts to push the fetus out of the body through the vaginal canal. |
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Term
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Definition
| process of gamete formation that involves a reduction in chromosome number via two stages of cell divisions; it is a special type of cell division characterized by crossing-over and separation of homologous chromosome pairs during meiosis I and results in four genetically different daughter cells, each with a haploid number of chromosomes, in meiosis II |
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Term
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Definition
| process occurs during meiosis I after synapsis (aligning of homologous chromosome pairs) when alleles of genes are exchanged between the homologous chromosome pairs; results in genetic recombination |
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Term
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Definition
| results after crossing over in meiosis I and causes the new gametes to have genetically-different chromosomes |
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Term
| Heterozygous dominant inheritance pattern |
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Definition
| genotype includes one dominant allele and one recessive allele; individual expresses the dominant phenotype; EX: Bb (genotype) codes for brown eyes (dominant phenotype) |
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Term
| Homozygous dominant inheritance pattern |
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Definition
| – genotype includes two dominant alleles; individual expresses the dominant phenotype; EX: BB (genotype) codes for brown eyes (dominant phenotype) |
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Term
| Homozygous recessive inheritance pattern |
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Definition
| genotype includes two recessive alleles; individual expresses the recessive phenotype; EX: bb (genotype) codes for blue eyes (recessive phenotype) |
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Term
| Sex-linked inheritance pattern |
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Definition
| affected genes carried on the X sex chromosome; females carry the affected genes but do not express them; males express the affected genes carried on the X sex chromosome they inherit from their mothers |
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