-minerals

-organic material

-water

-air

-organisms

-laters/horizons

*not dirt!

Climate (cl): temperature and precipitation

Parent material (pm): sediment type, mineralogy, ease of weathering

organisms (o): veg, micro/macro-organisms

typography (top): slope, aspect, erosion rates, water regime

time (time): old vs young soils

Hard to study all at the same time, so study:

-climofunction

-lithofunction

-biofunction

-topofunction

-chronofunction

organic horizons: litter, fermentation and humification layers (in that order)

Subsoil: everything between the c horizon and the organic horizons

a horizon: presenting an eluviation of elements

b horizon: horizon presenting an illuviation of elements

C horizon: horizon that presents comparatively no alteration compared to the other horizons

soil: the subsoil

A

-heavily weathered

-max organic content

-mineral leaching (eluviation)

B

-concentrated leachate from A (illuviation)

C

-similar to parent material

MODIFIERS

h- dark, organic enriched

e- light A with eluviation (depletion) of clay, Fe, Al, organic matter

f- illuvial: accumulation of Fe, Al, organics

he- Ah horizon with eluviation

ca- CoCO3 enriched (more than parent material)

Intense leaching under wet, tropical conditions

Rainwater dissolves primary rock minerals

Decreases easily soluble elements (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Si)

Leaves residual concentration of insoluble elements (Fe, Al)

Fe and Al oxidize

Occurs under dry conditions, where precipitation < evapotranspiration

Evaporation draws moisture to the surface

Dissolved salts (ei NaSO4) precipitate out

the underlying geological material where a soil forms

-geomorphic processes... landforms determine parent material

-controls local and regional soil formation

CHERNOZEMIC

A:high organics (Ah)

B: minor alterations (Bm)

C: CaCO3 from A and B reprecipitates in upper parts

GLEYSOLIC

-prolonged water saturation (riparian areas)

-surface water concentrates in topographic lows (sloughs)

-gleying (blue-grey colours) within 50cm of surface

LUVISOLIC

-loamy glacial till deposits (function of PM)

A:eluvial (leached)

B: illuvial, higher clay content than A or C

REGOSOLIC

-young surfaces (sand dunes, floodplains, mountaintops)- little development

-B:none or thin (<5cm)

Solonetzic

-grassland soils

-high Na from marine shales (bedrock)

Bn: high Na content

****Look at pictures!!**

* soil over geologic time reflects stability of surfaces - can't occur with erosion or rapid deposition

Single most important physical property of soil

-info on: water flow potential, water holding capacity, fertility potential

-Soil texture is determined by the percentages of clay, silt, and sand particles in the soil.

-anything greater than 2mm is not part of the fine earth fraction

Feel Method

-set soil in hand and make a ribbon

-length of ribbon indicates clay content

-grit indicates sand/silt

-smoothness indicates silt

-Can also use sieve analysis

___

Changes in soil texture

-pedologic processes alter soil texture

-soil development (sand to silt, silt to clay, old soil has higher clay)

Structure, texture, grain size give additional information

-porosity

-permeability

-moisture content

-nutrient content

Broad Controls

-time (development of old vs young soils)

-climate (T,P)

-organisms (overlying veg, micro/macro orgs

Local Controls

-parent material - sediment type, mineralogy, ease of weathering

-topography - slope, aspect, erosion rates, water regime

-broad controls:

1)order

2)great group

-local controls:

-subgroup

-family

-series

There are 9 orders:

-brunisolic

-chernozemic

-cryosolic

-gleysolic

-luvisolic

-organic

-possolic

-regosolic

-solonetzic

-low rainfall

-CaCO3 leached from A (easiest to dissolve in H2O)

-re-precipitates in B (Bca) when moisture evaporates

-cold, humid, coniferous, (acidic)

-rainwater leaches acidic litter (Fe, Al, oranics leach from A) (bleached-grey A)

-B horizon: concentrated Fe, Al, organics

-color

-structure

-texture

-effervescence

-unusual features

-tells about organics, eluviation, minerals, etc

-use Munsell colour chart

HUE:

-relation to red, yellow, green, blue, purple (top right corner)

VALUE:

-lightness (0= absolute black; 10= absolute white)

-up and down

CHROMA:

-strength

-0= neutral greys

-side to side

-particles adhere in specified shapes

-"structural peds"

-named based on appearance

-peds form by et/dry, freeze/thaw processes

-held together by clay, organic matter

TYPES
-granular

-platy

-sub-angular blocky

-prismatic/columnar

GOOD STRUCTURE = HEALTHY SOIL

Sand Properties

-feels gritty

-non-cohesive

-high porosity

-well-drained

-fewer nutrients

Silt Properties

-floury, smooth

-not sticky (plastic, malleable when wet)

-retains more water, nutrients

-highly erosive (partly due to particle shape)

Clay Properties

-sticky, plastic

-moldable when wet

-small pore spaces

-highw ater adsorption

-shrink swell process

-flat plates, flakes

-small particles = colloids

-will not settle from suspension

-contaminants

Composition, sequence, classification, spatial distribution, and correlation of stratified rocks/deposits

stratigraphic discontinuity: change in color, hardness, structure, etc.)

How?

-stratigraphic sections

-well logs

-sediment cores

Why?

-Past surface processes

-weathering, deposition, life, uplift, climate

-relationships between rock layers

-interpretation of depositional environment

-Paleogeography, biology, sea-level and climate, plate techtonics

QUESTIONS TO ASNWER

1)How old?

2) Eents that produced the section? In what order?

3)Environment when these rocks were deposited?

QUESTIONS TO ASK

1)Sediment sources

2)sea-level change

3)plate tectonics and internal earth processes?

4)changing biosphere

Depositional history: litho-

Organism evolution: bio-

Earth composition: chemo-, litho-

Plate tectonics: magneto-, litho-, bio-

Climate: chemo-

Facies

"distinctive rock that forms under certain conditions of sedimentation, reflecting a particular process or environment"

sedimentary facies = depositional environment

biofacies = fossil content

lithofacies = grain size, mineralogy

___

with increasing ocean depth, go from sandstone facies to shale facies to limestone facies

1) Original horizontality (sedimentary layering)

-at some point, they were horizontal

2)Superposition (young over old)

-superposition of layers (strata)

3)Cross-cutting relationships (intrusions, faults)

4)Faunal and floral succession

Only facies that occur side-by-side (laterall) can be vertically superimposed on each other

Ie.

Seal level rise (transgressive)..

-limestone on top, then shale, siltstone, andstone

Sea  level decrease (regressive) ..

-other way around

-will always be in that order

-tape measure

-grain size card (roundness, sorting)

-sample bags and marker

-ruler

-brunton compass

-calipers

-trowel

-geological hammer

-notebook

-camera

-shovel

OVERVIEW

-GPS location

-Site notes:

---orientation, dimensions

---relationship to nearby features

---part of a larger landform?

-field sketch of exposure

-boundaries between units sharp or dicontinuous?

POINTS TO CONSIDER

-How many large-scale units?

-lateral continuity of beds/units

-any deformation?

-photograph with a reference object (for scale)

-true section or slump?

DETAIL

-colour

-organic content

-sediment texture

---particle size and sorting

-sediment lithology

---clast shape and roundness

---lithology

-bedding (beds, lamina)

-sedimentary structures

---deformation

---faults

-Sampling

---particle size, chemical properties, etc

If you see crazy things, it could be due to a land process (rockslide) of maybe missing information (ie. loss of time)

**look at pictures of all these

1) Parallel laminations

-upper and lower contacts are approximately parallel

-can result from:

---settling from suspension

---deposition in a low energy enviornment

---laminar flow

2)Ripples

-indicate past presence of water

3)Cross bedding

-higher energy means ripples migrate

-continuous erosion on stoss side, deposition on lee side causes cross bed formation

4)Tabular cross bedding

-high flow, flow decreases, then high flow again

5)Graded bedding

-when particles become progressivle finer (FU) or coarser (CU) from bottom to top

-coarse means high energy, fine means low

6)Varves

-a true varve= a couplet of summer silt and winter clay

-can count years

7)Mud cracks

8)Matrix vs clast -supported sediments

9) Soft Sediment Deformation

glaciotectonics: deformation of sediments by moving ice

***We can say very little about a sediment/tectonic structure without the landscape setting

-need an integrated approach

Stratigraphic sections

Lace cores

Glacier Fluctuations

Landform development

Numerical Age

-Carbon14

-luminescence

Relative age

-weathering rind

-lichenometry

-dendrochronology

-varves/ice cores

-biostratigraphy

-ashes

Mixed Techniques

-palynology

14C

-radio-isotopes (14C, U, K, etc)

-compare present 12C/13C/14C ratio with dead or fossilized organic material

-half-life of 14C is 5730 +/- 40 yrs

-works up to ~30kyrs (max 60kyrs)

Luminescence

-Radiation damages minerals (ie quartz) and creates electron traps in the crystals

-stimulated until released

-types are thermoluminescence, optical-(visible light), infrared, and radio (ionizing radiation)

-timeframe is 100s of thousands of years

-weathering rinds (freshly exposed rock develops rind)

-calculate mean rind thickness for single lithology

-pedogenesis/paleosols

LICHENOMETRY

Rhizocarpan geographicum is most commonly used

-grows ~1-4mm/yr

-invade quickly on bare rock (cemetary grave stones have exact dates)

-compae with calibrated lichen size with lichen @ field site

-grow rates vary with elevation, aspect, rock type, proximity to sea, and time

Dendrochronology

-based on analysis of tree-ring growth patterns

-landslides, glacier fluctuations, floods, droughts, volcanic eruptions, fire, etc

-sample live trees, analyze/correlate with dead stumps, relate to specific events

Varve chronology

Annual layers in glacier ice

Tephrachronology

(using volcanic ash)

-types are mafic (local tephras; not explosive) and felsic (cascades, indonesia... explosive and widespread tephra)

-recent technique used since 40s in N America

-St Helens erupted 3500BP and 1980

Palynology (mixed dating)

-pollen analysis

-use microscopic analysis to determine pollen types from sediment cores

-numerical dating

Paleomagnetism

Dating methods most valuable when calibrated/cross correlated to provide dates in years

Certain methods only usable for particular materials within a certain age range

Use of more than one technique ives you a more reliable chronology

Challenge is to improve techniques of old methods and develop new ones

Can be thought of as a soil (particles and pore space)

Cold snow (<0), pore space filled with air

When melting, some have water (only get runoff when all pore spaces are full)

-characterized using many variables

VOLUME

Vs = Vi + Vw + Va = hsA

hs=depth snow, A=area(surface), s=snow,i=ice,w= liquid water, a=air

POROSITY

=(Vair+Vw)/Vs

-ratio of pore volume to total volume

SNOW-WATER EQUIVALENT

amount of water from melting snow (given in a depth)

hm= (ps/pw)*hs

-determines water that ultimately enters hydrological cycle

Caused by:

GRAVITATIONAL SETTLING

-increased weight and increased temp = increased metamorphism

-decreased density = decreased metamorphism (because dry and cold)

-density increase 2-50kg/m3/day in shallow snowpack

-

DESTRUCTIVE (equitemperature) METAMORPHISM

-points, projections evaporate and necks form

-towards larger and rounder snow crystals

-stronger snow pack

CONSTRUCTIVE (temp gradient) METAMORPHISM

-creating new crystals (very faceted)

-grains enlarge (no necks)

-angular crystals, depth hoar (form at base of pack)

-weaker snowpack (slab avalanche)

MELT METAMORPHISM

-refreezing of liquid H2O in snowpack

-release of latent heat (can warm up, even though freezing)

-ice lenses, large snow grains

-ie. chinooks or in spring

Precipitation

Snowfall

Snowpack

Snowmelt (doesn't mean runoff)

Ablation

Water output (runoff)

Distribution is global, though Canada has a high concentration

-There are different types! (alpine, arctic)

Outburst floods: Icland

-colvanic melting (break through glaciers, or come out somewhere else)

-landslide prevents melt, then breaks through

Salmon: mid-coast BC

-water supply: southern AB

-tourism

-climate change

-hydropower

-sea level change

-land surface albedo change (feedbacks)

IPCC 2007

Predictions?

-temperature, precipitation

Sea level change controversy

-tied to glaciers

Variability is where the mean value stays the same

Change is where the mean changes

Changes are occuring in both glacier area and thickness!!

In alpine glaciers, we will always see a change in extent associated with a change in thickness. In arctic glaciers, changes in only thickness can happen.

Changes in area and volume

advantages of satellite imagery over field work..

1)cheaper

2)more area covered

3)repeat visits

b = c + a

balance = accumulation plus ablation

-based on calandar year or balance year (usually sept-aug)

ACCUMULATION

-Snow

-Avalanches

-Superimposed ice (only on polar, sub-polar glaciers- melts then refreezes without runoff)

ABLATION

-melt/runoff

-calving

-evaporation

-sublimation

Accumulation vs ablation zone drives ice dynamics

Usually, accumulation zone feeds ablation zone

1) DIRECT measurement

-snow pits, UDG, snow stakes

-ablation stakes

-winter(bw) vs summer (bs) balance

-stratified sampling by elevation and distribution to edges

2)Remote Sensing

-imagery

-radar or laser altimetry

3)Indirect Methods

-Hydrological method (Bn = P-R-E)

-Climatic calculation (energy balance)

DECLINING MASS BALANCE

-climatic drivers

-dynamics (thinning vs retreat)

-hydrology

Climate change AND variability (coming out of ice age) affecting glaciers today.

Measuring Precip

-use standard gauges (same as rain gauge)

-problems /w wind though

MEASURING SNOWFALL

Standard Method

-ruler on a board

Doppler radar

-can be problems due to radar feturn from interfering objects

MEASURING SNOWPACK

SNOW PITS

-Dig a pit facing South

-identify individual layers

-collect continuous density profile

-collect temperature profile

-assess crystal structure

SNOW STAKES

-givs depth, not density

-measure surface height on fixed ruler

-labor intensive

SNOW SURVEYS

-several snow courses, 150-250m long

-6+ points each course (every ~30m)

-several in a water shed

-sample using a snow tube, get depth, mass

-labour intensive also

AUTOMATED

Acoustic Gauges

-measure using ultrasonic rays (UDG or SR50)

Radioactive Gauges

-gamma-ray source inserted at land surface, detector hanging above

-determine snow thickness, water content from ray attenuation

Radar

-shows internal structure of snowpack

-can measure large area

Snow Pillows

-weight of snow on liquid filled bladder pushes float up tube, indicating SWE

-require lots of maintenance

LARGE SCALE MEASUREMENTS

Airborne Microwave Sensing

-measure passive microwave emissions from snowpack

-SWE, areal extent

Airborne Radar

-beam radar snowpack and record return signal

-snow stratigraphy, liquid water content, SWE

-only works in flat terrain

LiDAR is newer technology, with potential to work in complex terrain

SATELLITES

-visible infrared and microwave

-clouds vs snow is a problem

-no volume, just extent

SNOW MELT

-lysimeters (problem is freezing)

-snow pillows (can't tell differnece b/w melt and sublimation)

-pans (looking @ individual events)

*Look at series of sections, not just one

There can be lateral changes in bed thickness

Unconformities can cause a hiatus, which represents lost time (stratigraphically complete vs incomplete)

Index Fossils

Relative dating methods

-stratigraphic dating

-ice cores

-varves

-75% of global exposed surface rock

-exposure due to elements weathering sedimets

What Are They Made Of?

-particles from existing rocks and biological remains

autochthonous - originate within the basin where they accumulate

allochthonous - originate outside the basin where they're deposited

Autochthonous

-particles in situ

Group1: precipitates

-crystallization from liquid (limestones, evaporites)

Group2: organics

-carbon rich residue (coal)

Group3: Residuals

-remain after intense weathering

-often iron/aluminum (low solubility)

-bauxite (aluminum ore)

Allochthonous

-particles transported

Group1: Terrigenous

-directle from weathering (clay[shale], silt [siltstone], sand [sandstone], gravel [conglomerate]

Group2: Volcaniclastic

-Igneous particles transported/deposited by wind, water

-tephra, ash, tuff

HOW ARE THESE PARTICLES CREATED?

Weathering and Erosion

-frost

-salt

-chemical

-soil creep

-mass wasting

-surface erosion

HOW TRANSPORTED?

-water

-wind

-gravity

-ice

Unconsolidated materials becoming rock

-called diagenesis (or lithification)

Basic processes:

-physical (compaction)

-chemical (cementation).. quartz

-biological (bioturbation).. rearranges particles.. ie. worms disturbing

Cementation: volume @ A = Volume @ E (filling pore space)

Compaction = not equal (removing pore space)

DEPOSITION TYPE

Fluid flow...

-laminar (transfer of mass and momentum)

-turbulent (no mass transfer b/w layers)

Sediment moves through layer through suspension, saltation, and rolling/sliding

Bedform Formation (sand-bedded systems)

-lower and uppoer flo regimes

-lower flow regime  creates dunes at high velocities

-upper flow regime creates antidunes and higher flow velocity

GRAIN SIZE

-large range... log scale most practical

-grain size histogram can be linear or logarithmic

-linear is heavily positively skewed

-logarithmic is more normally distributed

GRAIN SORTING

-can be poor, moderately or well sorted

GRAIN SHAPE

-Roundness (degree of abrasion; sharpness of edges and corners)

-Sphericity (how close to the shape of a sphere; length/width/thickness)

1) Scientific Method

2) Where, What, How, Timing?

3)Safety, permission

4)Cost, logistics (access, wildlife)

5)Examples

1) Identify Problem

2) Formulate Hypothesis

3) Develop Research Plan

4) Select Field Site

5) Prepare Data Collection

6) Collect Data

7) Analyze Data

8)Draw Conclusions

9)Report Results

Where?

Location>Lanscape>Niche

How?

1) Map/measure/sample observable features and materials

2) Use instruments to monitor and measure processes

3)Interview to understand non-visible aspects of the area (asp helpful /w arctic research)

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1)How do we perceive things?

2)How do our minds use the images we see (brains process diferently)

3)What are we doing when we interpret what we see? (remembering? fairly subjective...)

4) What is spatial reasoning?

5) What are we doing when we think spatially

CORRECT PROCEDURES

Observe/Measure Systematically ***

Think in SYSTEMS***

***OFten get different results from same data***

Don't forget!!

-safety

-permission

-cost

-logistics (practicality of site)

Holistic assessment of a suite of environmental processes across scales

Process-form Relationships

-Sediment/soil properties

-characteristics of specific features (lake, dune, glacier, etc)

-physiographic/tectonic setting

-hydroclimatic setting

USEFUL FOR REGIONAL-SCALE STUDIES!

-Reveal patterns and processes of complete cycles: climate change, tectonics, etc

-Complement short-term studies of modern environments

Reconstruction of geographic environments is based on observations and assumptions

Present is key to past!

1)Need to correct contemporary analogues

2)greater knowledge of modern systems results in less errors in understanding past systems

*largest scale = largest errors