The technique is used in situations where the "community organizer, change agent, advocate, agitator or facilitator" desiring to achieve change uses proven psychological techniques and deception to manipulate groups of people to agree to something they currently oppose. (Like brainwashing)

Program Evaluation and Review Technique - a set of principles, methods, and techniques for planning programs in relation to objectives,interrelating and controlling variables of time and resources, scheduling events and activities, and replanning research or development programs.

illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project

used it to identify the extent of a person’s beliefs, attitudes, or feelings towards some objects. The traditional Likert scale asks people the extent to which they agree or disagree with a statement on a 5-point scale. The scale ranges from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.

Exploitative authoritative (I) - managers tend to use threats, fear, and punishment to motivate their workers

Benevolent authoritative (II) -  motivation is based on the potential for punishment and partially on rewards. 

Consultative System (III) -
Motivation of workers is gained through rewards, occasional punishments, and very little involvement in making decisions and goals

Participative System (IV) - promotes genuine participation in making decisions and setting goals through free-flowing horizontal communication and tapping into the creativity and skills of workers

Managerial Grid:

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton

• identified five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and the concern for
  
• productionconcern for production as the x-axis and concern for people as the y-axis

1. the indiferent - low concern for people and production
2. the accomodating - high concern for people and low concern for production
3. the dictorial - low concern for people and high concern for production
4. status quo - concern for both people and production.  Tries to balance
5. the sound - high concern to both people and production

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Kurt Lewin:

3-stage strategy for facilitating change

The first stage he called "unfreezing". It involved overcoming inertia and dismantling the existing "mind set". It must be part of surviving. Defense mechanisms have to be bypassed. In the second stage the change occurs. This is typically a period of confusion and transition. We are aware that the old ways are being challenged but we do not have a clear picture as to what we are replacing them with yet. The third and final stage he called "freezing". The new mindset is crystallizing and one's comfort level is returning to previous levels. This is often misquoted as "refreezing"

enhances the motivation, morale, and performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to the project and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires them and makes them interested; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers with tasks that enhance their performance.

• roots in the Hawthorne Studies conducted in the 1920s and 1930s at the Hawthorne works of the Western Electric Company

Three ELEMENTS OF HUMAN RELATION THEORY:
The Individual: The Theory recognizes the importance of emotions and perceptions of individuals.

Informal Organizations: The Human Relations Theory emphasizes the informal organizations. Attention is focused on the social aspects of man whose overriding need is seen as a desire to belong, to be accepted by and stand well in his work group.”

Participative Management: Human Relations Theory advocates the style of participative management. In other words, the manager should consult the work groups and their informal leaders before introducing a change of programme.

Achievement Theory

(David McClelland)

an individual's need to meet realistic goals, receive feedback and experience a sense of accomplishment.

For example, employees who are Achievement-Motivated thrive very well in corporations where they receive regular performance evaluations. They feel energized and satisfied with their jobs because goals are set, they are given positive or negative feedback on past behaviors and given some type of rewards if they performed well.

W. Edwards Demming

Quality Movement

develop effective management processes that increase organizational efficiency andeffectiveness, enhance product quality, and maximize customer satisfaction

that people, once having reached a level of economic security, strive for a life steeped in values, a work life where the person would be able to create and produce.

Theory Z places more reliance on the attitude and responsibilities of the workers

ERG Theory

(Clayton Alderfer)

• Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs.
• Relatedness needs- These include the aspiration individual’s have for maintaining significant interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors), getting public fame and recognition. Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs fall under this class of need.
• Growth needs- These include need for self-development and personal growth and advancement. Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs fall under this category of need.

Legal Authority

(Max Weber)

Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality)

This form of authority is frequently found in the modern state, city governments, private and public corporations, and various voluntary associations.

Charasmatic Authority

(Max Weber)

Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and vision inspire others

It is based upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual.

Traditional Authority

(Max Weber)

Traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity. It does not change overtime, does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo

Chris Argyris

(Motivation Theory)

Pattern A people and groups tend toward Theory X and are more rigid in their supervision and management styles

Pattern B people and groups resemble Theory Y traits and are more flexible and open to new ideas.

Coercive Power

(French and Raven)

This type of power is based upon the idea of coercion. The main idea behind this concept is that someone is forced to do something that he/she does not desire to do. The main goal of coercion is compliance

This source of power can often lead to problems and in many circumstances it involves abuse

Often the threats involve saying someone will be fired or demoted

Rewards Power

(French and Raven)

involves having the ability to grant another person things that person desires or to remove or decrease things the person does not desire.^[6] present subordinates with outcomes that the subordinate regards in a positive manner.^[3] This type of power is based on the idea that we as a society are more prone to do things and to do them well when we are getting something out of it.

The most popular forms are offering raises, promotions, and simply compliments

Legitamate Power

(French and Raven)

This power which means the ability to administer to another certain feelings of obligation or the notion of responsibility

People traditionally obey the person with this power solely based on their position or title rather than the person specifically as a leader. Therefore this type of power can easily be lost and the leader does not have his position or title anymore. This power is therefore not strong enough to be one's only form of influencing/persuading others.

Referent Power

(French and Raven)

The power of holding the ability to administer to another a sense of personal acceptance or personal approval.^[3] This type of power is strong enough that the power-holder is often looked up to as a role model.^[9] This power is often regarded as admiration, or charm. The responsibility involved is heavy and the power easily lost, but when combined with other forms of power it can be very useful. Referent power is commonly seen in political and military figures, although celebrities often have this as well.

Expert Power

(French and Raven)

The ability to administer to another information, knowledge or expertise.^[6] ( Example: Doctors, lawyers. As a consequence of the expert power or knowledge, a leader is able to convince his subordinates to trust him.

Theory X

Douglas McGregor

The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.

• Because of their dislike for work, most people must be controlled and threatened before they will work hard enough.
• The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is unambiguous, and desires security above everything
• 
  Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the employees behave in the expected fashion.

Theory Y

Douglas McGregor

• The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.
• Control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work, man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the organization.
• If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization.
• The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
• Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems by a large number of employees.
• Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average man are only partially utilized.

Abraham Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs

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Motivation-Hygiene Theory

(Fredrick Herzberg)

there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction

This hidden informal organization is defined by the patterns, behaviors, and interactions that stem from personal rather than official relationships.

organization is a fixed set of rules of infra-organization procedures and structures. As such, it is usually set out in writing, with a language of rules that ostensibly leave little discretion for interpretation.

leader possesses all the necessary information and has the required expertise to make the best decision. He/she makes the decision and the subordinates are then informed of what the decision is.

The facilitative decision making style indicates a joint effort between leaders and subordinates, both providing input to make a shared decision. It is important that subordinates have access to the information required to make the decision. They should also have some

degree of expertise and/or motivation to ensure an effective decision is made.

Responsibility for this decision is shared and this style can actually be very empowering to subordinates

Consultative decision making is said to occur when the leader asks for advice and opinions from his subordinates, and makes the decision himself. As in the authoritative decision making style, responsibility remains with the leader.

If the subordinates have expertise or information that will help make a more effective decision, a wise leader will ask for it. But unless the subordinates understand that that's what is occurring, it can lead to upset or disappointment.

Delegative decision making, as the name implies, is when a leader passes responsibility for the decision making and the decision to one or more subordinates. It may even be all the subordinates.

Again, the pros and cons are determined by the expertise and knowledge of those actually making the decision. The style obviously comes into its own as the organization gets larger, and means the leader does not necessarily have to make all the decisions.

The Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an outcome of how much an individual wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to reward (Instrumentality). I

Madeline Hunter

7 Elements of Instruction