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An argument where the conclusion does not follow the premise. This fallacy appears in political speeches and advertising with great frequency. Ex. Dr. X is being sued. He must be a terrible doctor. |
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| A technique that involves projecting the positive or negative qualities of one person, entity, object, or value onto another to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It invokes emotional response. |
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| An argument in which the conclusion is implied or already assumend in the premises. Basically, the writer assumes something in his premise that really should be proved. |
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| To restate the premise rather than giving a reason for holding that premise. Often rephrased so that the fallacy appears to be a valid argument. |
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| The definition includes the term being defined as part of the definition. |
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A speaker begins with a false assumption that is assumed true. Ex. Because you are in AP, this work must come easy for you. |
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Ad Hominem Attacking the Man/Person |
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| A technique which attacks the person rather than his/her argument or the issue under discussion. |
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Obtain Disapproval Reductio ad Hitlerum |
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| A technique used to persuade a target audience to dissaprove of an action or idea, simply by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups, hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. |
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| Distraction by Nationalism |
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| The method of discrediting opposing arguments by appealing to nationalistic pride or memory of past accomplishments, as well as appealing to fear or dislike of a specific country or foreigners in general. |
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| When you misrepresent or distort someone else's position so that it can be attacked more easily, knock down that misrepresented position, then conclude that the original position has been demolished. |
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| Forming a general rule by examining only a few specific cases, which do not necessarily represent all cases. |
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Overgeneralization Dicto Simpliciter |
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| Drawing a conclusion about a large number of people, ideas, things, etc. based on very limited evidence. |
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| Oversimplification/favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems. Using clichés; makes broad, sweeping, positive statements with little or no substance. |
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Use of words in the value system of the target audience which tends to produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom |
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Name Calling Stereotyping Labeling |
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| Speaker uses emotionally charged, negative terms for a group or idea, without providing proof or examining the real issues. |
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| Form of misrepresentation in which a statement is made which may be true, but the phrasing, connotation of words, and emphases are manipulative. |
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Complex question Loaded question |
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The interrogative form of Begging the Question. Ex. "Have you stopped beating your wife?" Ex. "Have you come out of the closet yet?" |
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| Anecdotal evidence can see very compelling, especially if the audicnce wants to believe it. This is apart of the explination for uban legends. Stories which are verifiably false have been known to circulate as anecdots for years. |
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When something is identified as the cause of an event, but it has not actually been shown to be the cause. I took an asprin and prayed to God, and my headache dissappeared. So god cured me of the headache. |
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| A form of hasty generalization or false cause, asserts that because two events occur together, they must be causually related. |
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Post Hoc Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc |
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| A form of hasty generalization in which it is inferred that because on event followed another, it is necessarily caused by that event. |
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| The writer asserts that there are only two possibilities, when inreality there are more. |
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| The line of reasoning that assumes that if one action is taken, it will lead to inevitable and extreme consequences. There is no grey area or middle ground. |
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Plurium Interrogationum Many Questions |
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| This fallacy occurs when someone demands a simple answer to a complex question. Often Yes or No Answers. |
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| A fallacy that introduces an irrelavant issue into a discussion as a diversionary tactic. It takes people off the issue at hand; it is beside the point. It can still to relate to the content being discussed, but not the exact issue on the table. |
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| Appeals to athority cite prominent figures to support a position, idea, argument, or course of action. Oftentimes it is an athority in one field who is speaking out of his field. |
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| Athorities in one field are used to endorse a product or an idea that they lack expertise about. |
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| The arguer uses emotional appeals rather than logical reasons to persuade the listener. |
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| Appeals to fear seek to build support by instilling anxieties and panic in the general population. |
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Argumentum ad Misericordiam Appeal to Pitty |
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| The fallacy is committed when comeone appeals to pitty for the sake of getting a conclusion accepted. |
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Argument from Analogy False Analogy |
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An unsound form of indictive argument in which an argument is based completely or relies heavily on analogy to prove its point.
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| The assumption that because two things are alike in some ways, they must be in other ways. |
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Natural Law Fallacy Appeal to Nature |
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A common fallacy in political arguments, where on version consists of drawing an analogy between a particular conclusion, and some aspect of the natural world. Then stating the conclusion is inevitable, because the natural world is similar. Ex. The natural world is charachterized by competition, animals struggle against one another for ownership of limited natural resources. Capitalism, the competitive struggle for ownerniship of capital, is simply an inevitable part of human nature. It's how the natural world works. |
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| The speaker mentions only the facts that will build the best case for his or her argument, ignoring other factors or evidence. |
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Tu quoque Two Wrongs Make a Right |
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| This fallacy is committed when we try to justify an apparently wrong action by charges of a similar wrong. The underlying assumption is that if they do it, then we can do it too and are somehow justified. |
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| Shifting the Burden of Proof |
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| The burden of proof is always on the person asserting something. A special case of argumentum ad ignorantium, is the fallacy of putting the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion. |
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| An assertion that falsely relies on the use of a term in two different senses. The arguer uses the ambiguous nature of a word or phrase to shift the meaning in such a way as to make the reason offered appear more convincing. |
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| This fallacy is committed when we assert a statement to be true on the evidence that many other people allegedly believe it. Being widely believed is not proof of evidence of the truth. |
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Past Belief Appeal to Tradition |
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| The same error in reasoning as committed except for the claim is for belief or support in the past. In other words, asserting that something is good or bad simply because it's old, or because "That's the way it's always been." |
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| the "Plain Folks" or "Common man" approach attempts to convince the audience that the propagandists positions reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by communication in the common manner and style of the target audience. |
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| This form of fallacy attempts to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action that "Everyone else is taking." |
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