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Definition
| An organized structure of DNA, RNA, and proteins found in cells. They contain thousands of genes that are important in development of the human body. |
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Definition
| A complex of 40% DNA 60% protein that make up chromosomes. |
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| The complex of DNA and histone proteins. |
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| A compact structure of DNA wrapped in nucleosomes. |
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Definition
| A region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of the chromatid, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or fusion with neighboring chromosomes. They deter the degradation of genes near the ends by allowing the chromosome to shorten. |
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Definition
| A trait determined by a gene on the X chromosome. |
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| The particular array of chromosomes an individual organism possesses. |
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| Having an extra chromosome |
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| The 22 perfectly matched chromosomes in humans |
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| The remaining pair of chromosomes that are not autosomes. |
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| Greater than 34C in the nest. |
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| Less than 34C in the nest. |
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| Biggest female in the group becomes male. |
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| The part of the chromosome that links sister chromatids. |
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| Ensures an equal level of expression from the sex chromosomes despite a differing number of sex chromosomes; this is why females do not express twice the amount of the proteins encoded in X even though they have two X chromosomes. |
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Definition
| Syndrome caused by non-disjunction in eggs where there is a trisomy of three X chromosomes (XXX). These females are generally taller but overall they are normal. |
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Definition
| Syndrome caused by non-disjunction in eggs where there is trisomy with XXY. These males generally have lower testosterone but are normal overall. |
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Definition
| Syndrome caused by non-disjunction in eggs where monosomy occurs in the sex chromosomes causing the female to have XO. Symptoms include short stature, sterility and many more. |
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Definition
| Females that are heterozygous for X-chromosome alleles so their individual cells may express different alleles, depending on which chromosome is inactivated. |
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| Non-viable sex chromosomes |
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Definition
| Non-disjunction in eggs that causes a monosomy of OY. |
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Definition
| Non-disjunction in sperm that causes trisomy with XYY. These males are generally normal. |
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Definition
| The phenotype caused by a specific allele is exhibited when the allele comes from one parent, but not from the other. |
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| Non-Mendelian inheritance |
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Definition
| The action of genes in organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts which are not partitioned with the nuclear genome by the process of meiosis. |
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Definition
| Genes that are inherited from the female parent. |
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Definition
| The number of recombinant progeny divided by the total progeny. |
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| Genetic recombination (cross over) |
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Definition
| The exchange of alleles on homologues. |
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Definition
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Definition
| Disease caused by an X-linked recessive allele; affects a single protein in a cascade of proteins involved in the formation of blood clots. |
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Definition
| The transfer of genetic material between cells causing them to transform their properties. |
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Term
| The 3 nucleotide subunits of DNA & RNA |
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Definition
| (1) a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA); (2) a phosphate group; and (3) a nitrogenous base. |
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Definition
| The linkages in DNA & RNA composed of phosphate groups that are linked to the two sugars by means of a pair of ester bonds. |
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Definition
(1) Proportion of Adenine = Proportion of Thymine; Proportion of Guanine = Proportion of Cytosine
(2) The Ration of A-T to G-C varies with different species. |
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Term
| Complementary base pairing |
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Definition
| Hydrogen bonds between A-T and G-C that hold the strands together. |
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Definition
| Thymine (T) & Cytosine (C) |
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Definition
| Adenine (A) & Guanine (G) |
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Definition
| A model of DNA replication that produces one entirely new molecule and conserves the old. |
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Definition
| A model of DNA replication that produces two hybrid molecules of old and new strands. |
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Definition
| A model of DNA replication that produces hybrid molecules with each strand a mixture of old and new. |
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Term
| Meselson-Stahl experiment |
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Definition
| Experiment that shows that the basic mechanism of DNA replication is semi-conservative. |
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Definition
| The enzyme that matches the existing DNA bases with complementary nucleotides and links the nucleotides together to make the new strand. |
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Definition
| An agent that increases the number of mutations. |
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Definition
| A specific DNA repair mechanism that repairs a form of damage caused by UV light, namely the thymine dimer. It uses photolyase that binds to the damaged DNA and cleaves the thymine dimer in order to repair it. |
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Definition
| Non-specific DNA repair mechanism where the damaged region is removed, or excised, and is then replaced by DNA synthesis. UvrABC complex removes the damaged portion and DNA polymerase I or II replaces the damaged DNA. |
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Definition
| DNA strand that serves as a template to create two new DNA molecules. |
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Definition
| The area of active replication. |
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Definition
| Enzyme used in DNA replication that separates the strands of the double helix. |
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Definition
| Enzyme used in DNA replication that makes sure that the double stranded areas outside of the replication fork do not supercoil. |
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Term
| Beta clamp & clamp loader |
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Definition
| Structures of DNA replication that help hold the DNA polymerase in place on the DNA. |
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Definition
| Enzyme used in DNA replication that pairs RNA primers to the template strand. |
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Definition
| The strand where continuous DNA synthesis occurs in a 3' to 5' direction during DNA replication. |
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Term
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Definition
| The strand where dis-continuous DNA synthesis occurs in the 5' to 3' prime direction during DNA replication. Requires the use of RNA primers. |
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Definition
| Short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed on the lagging strand through the use of RNA primers during DNA replication. |
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Term
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Definition
| Enzyme used in DNA replication that adds short nucleotide sequences to the primer filling in the gaps. |
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Definition
| Enzyme used in DNA replication that replaces the RNA primers with DNA nucleotides. |
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Definition
| Enzyme used in DNA replication that ensures bonding of the nucleotides. |
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Definition
| Complex molecular machine that carries out replication of DNA. |
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Definition
| Stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a polypeptide; they specify all proteins and hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring. |
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Term
| Central dogma of molecular biology |
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Definition
| The nature of information flow in cells; information passes in one direction from the gene (DNA) to an RNA copy of the gene, and the RNA copy directs the sequential assembly of a chain of amino acids into a protein. |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA directed synthesis of m-RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase where DNA is used as a template to make m-RNA; occurs inside the nucleus |
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Term
| Initiation, Elongation, Termination |
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Definition
| The three stages of transcription. |
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Term
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Definition
| The first stage in transcription where the promoter region of the gene functions as a recognition site for RNA polymerase to bind; this is where the majority of gene expression is controlled by either permitting or blocking access to this site by the RNA polymerase. When RNA polymerase binds to the promoter it causes the double helix of the DNA to unwind and open. |
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Definition
| The second stage in transcription where the RNA polymerase slides along the template DNA strand and links nucleotides to the 3’ prime end of the growing RNA molecule. |
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Definition
| The third stage in transcription where the RNA polymerase reaches the terminator portion of the gene and the m-RNA is complete and they all dissociate from each other. |
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Term
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Definition
| Nucleotide sequence encoded by a gene that remains present within the final mature RNA product of that gene after introns have been removed by RNA splicing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-coding nucleotide sequence within a gene that is removed by RNA splicing. |
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Term
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Definition
| The type of RNA that is made during transcription through the use of RNA polymerase. |
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Definition
| The type of RNA that is made after the spliceosome has removed introns and has had a 5’ cap and 3’ poly-A tail added. This RNA leaves leave the nucleus through a nuclear pore and enters the cytoplasm to begin translation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Enzyme that produces RNA chains using DNA genes as templates. |
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Term
| Deathcap mushroom (amanita phalloides) |
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Definition
| Organism that contains α-Amanitin which can bind in RNA polymerase and cause poisoning. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process in gene expression where the information contained in the messenger RNA is used to make a polypeptide. |
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Term
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Definition
| A three-base sequence of DNA that encodes a single amino acid in the genetic code. |
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Term
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Definition
| A nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals the beginning of translation (AUG). |
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Term
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Definition
| A nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals for the termination of translation. There are three: (UGA)(UAG)(UAA) |
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Term
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Definition
| The type of RNA that carries each amino acid to the ribosome during translation. |
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Definition
| The codon carried by t-RNA that determines the amino acid and forms complelmentary base pairing with the codon of the mRNA during translation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Complex composed of the small and large ribosomal subunits where there are three distinct regions called the E, P, and A sites. |
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Term
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Definition
| Position in the translation complex where a charged tRNA molecule is bound and a peptide bond forms between its amino acid and the one attached at the P site. |
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Term
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Definition
| Middle position in the translation complex where peptide bonds form between its amino acid and the one entering at the A site. |
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Definition
| Position in the translation complex where uncharged tRNA molecules exit. |
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Definition
| A factor that binds to the A site at a stop codon and the polypeptide is released from the t-RNA in the P site. |
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Term
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Definition
| A functioning unit of genomic DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control of a single regulatory signal or promoter. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mutation that alters a single base. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mutation that occurs with the deletion or addition of a single base; they alter the reading frame in the mRNA downstream of the mutation. Does not include deletion of triplet. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mutation characterized as a DNA slippage in replication where the number of repeats increases over generations. The cause of Huntington's disease. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of point mutation where base substitution changes an amino acid in a protein. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of point mutation where a base is changed such that the transcribed codon is converted to a stop codon. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of point mutation where the new codon from the base substitution still encodes the same amino acid; due to the degenerative nature of the genetic code. |
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Term
| Conservative missense mutation |
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Definition
| A type of point missense mutation that occurs when the properties of the new amino acid remain the same as the old one. |
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Term
| Non-conservative missense mutation |
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Definition
| A type of point missense mutation that results in a new amino acid with different properties than the original. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of chromosomal mutation where there is the loss of a portion of a chromosome. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of chromosomal mutation where piece of a chromosome is broken off and joined to another chromosome. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of chromosomal mutation where a segment of a chromosome is broken in two places, reversed, and put back together; may or may not have phenotypic effects. |
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Term
| Control of gene expression |
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Definition
| Process that is essential for the cell’s resources. It allows the cell to respond to the environment and regulate itself. It helps to establish and maintain homeostasis also it is crucial to the life cycle of the cell. Finally, it is part of the development of multi-cellular organisms. |
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Term
| The basis of transcriptional control |
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Definition
| The ability of certain proteins to bind to specific DNA regulatory sequences and either block transcription or facilitate the binding of RNA polymerase. |
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Definition
| The outside surface of the DNA molecule where the edges of the base pairs are exposed; location where proteins can interact with the DNA. |
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Definition
| Independently folded protein domain that interacts with specific sequences of bases in DNA, usually through the major groove of the DNA helix. |
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Term
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Definition
| A DNA binding motif that uses one or more zinc atoms to coordinate its binding to the DNA; a zinc atom links an a-helical segment to a b-sheet segment so that the helical segment fits into the major groove of the DNA. |
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Term
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Definition
| Proteins that bind to regulatory sites on DNA called operators to prevent or decrease the initiation of transcription. |
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Term
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Definition
| A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates the initiation of transcription; they enhance the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter. |
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Term
| Chromatin remodeling complexes |
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Definition
| Complex that includes enzymes that modify histones and DNA and that also change the chromatin structure itself. |
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Term
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Definition
| The addition of acetyl groups to the amino acid tails that protrude in histones; alters the structure of chromatin, making it accessible to the transcription apparatus. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of chromatin remodeling that makes DNA less accessible. |
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Definition
| Enzyme that has been linked with Alzheimers. |
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Definition
| A combination of proteins that make up ~10% of human genes; they can bind to promoters and enhancers. |
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Definition
| Process whereby particular exons may be included or excluded from the final mRNA which results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins. |
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Definition
| Molecular machine found only in eukaryotes that removes introns from a transcribed pre-mRNA segment. |
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Definition
| A biological process where RNA molecules inhibit gene expression, typically by causing the destruction of specific m-RNA molecules this is also known as gene silencing. |
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Definition
| An endonuclease protein that binds to the tdouble stranded precursors of siRNA and miRNA and cuts the RNA into short segments. |
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Definition
| A protein that binds to siRNA and miRNA after it has been cut with dicer and then separates one strand and keeps the other bound to it (guide strand). Once bound this protein catalyzes cleavage of the messenger RNA which will then be degraded. |
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Term
| RNA induced silencing complex (RISC). |
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Definition
| The combination of RNA and Argonaut in RNA interference. |
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Term
| Small interfering RNA (siRNA) |
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Definition
| A type of interfering RNA that directs RISC to bind to specific m-RNA; the targeting is precise because it is determined by base pairing. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of interfering RNA that guides RISC to messenger RNA; it is characterized through its imprecise matching which allows them to target hundreds of endogenous m-RNAs. |
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Term
| Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) |
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Definition
| Non protein coding transcripts longer than 200 nucleotides that have a role in gene transcription by targeting activators or repressors. |
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Definition
| A technique used to separate DNA fragments that takes advantage of the negative charge of DNA molecules by using an electrical field to provide the force necessary to separate them. |
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Term
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Definition
| A vehicle used to transfer genetic material to a target cell that can replicate in the host when it has been introduced. |
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Definition
| A type of vectors; small, circular extra-chromosomal DNAs that are dispensable to the bacterial cell. |
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Term
| The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) |
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Definition
| A reaction that can accelerate the pace of genetic engineering by quickly creating many clones of a DNA sequence without first inserting it into a plasmid. The process includes two primers that are complementary to the opposite strands of a denatured DNA sequence. |
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Definition
| Abstract maps that place the relative location of genes on chromosomes based on recombination frequency. |
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Term
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Definition
| A map of the locations of identifiable landmarks on DNA (e.g., restriction-enzyme cutting sites, genes), regardless of inheritance. Distance is measured in base pairs. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process that allows the precise identification of individual chromosomes or parts of chromosomes through staining of bands, or chromosome segments. |
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Term
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Definition
| A genome characterized by a circular map of all coding proteins and gene overlap. |
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Term
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Definition
| A genome characterized by huge linear maps; mostly non-protein coding. |
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Term
| Clone by clone sequencing |
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Definition
| A method of genome sequencing that uses clones already aligned by physical mapping. It assembles portions of a chromosome first and then attempts to figure out how the bigger pieces fit together. |
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Term
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Definition
| A method of genome sequencing that involves sequencing random clones using a computer to assemble the final sequence; it attempts to assemble all the pieces at once. |
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Term
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Definition
| A set of several similar genes, formed by duplication of a single original gene, and generally with similar biochemical functions. One example are the genes for human haemoglobin subunits. |
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Term
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Definition
| Dysfunctional relatives of genes that have lost their protein-coding ability or are otherwise no longer expressed in the cell. They often result from the accumulation of multiple mutations within a gene whose product is not required for the survival of the organism. |
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Term
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Definition
| A DNA sequence that can change its position within the genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size. They are generally considered non-coding. |
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Term
| Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) |
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Definition
| Single-nucleotide differences between individuals. They provide a way of identifying individual variation, and they have also revealed cases of nonrandom recombination (genomic haplotypes). |
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Definition
| Refers to the conserved arrangements of segments of DNA in related genomes; allows comparison of unsequenced genomes. |
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Term
| Chloroplasts & Mitochondria |
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Definition
| Organelles that contain components that indicate exchange of genetic material with the nuclear genome. |
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Term
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Definition
| Allows the expression of all of the genes in a cell to be monitored at once. |
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Definition
| Characterizes all of the proteins produced by a cell. |
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Definition
| Includes all of the m-RNA present in a cell. |
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Definition
| A mechanism of evolution that proposes that evolutionary change happens when some individuals in a population possess certain inherited characteristics that help them survive and produce more offspring than those without these characteristics. |
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Term
| Inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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Definition
| A rival theory to natural selection that says that changes that individuals acquired during their lives were passed onto their offspring. |
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Term
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Definition
| A principle that states that the original proportions of the genotypes in a population will remain constant from generation to generation, as long as certain assumptions are met. |
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Term
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Definition
| An agent of evolutionary change that causes a change from one allele to another and can change the proportions of particular alleles in a population. |
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Term
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Definition
| An agent of evolutionary change defined as the movement of alleles from one population to another. |
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Term
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Definition
| An agent of evolutionary change that does not alter allele frequency but reduces the proportion of hetero-zygotes. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of non-random mating in which phenotypically similar individuals mate, increasing the proportion of homozygous individuals. |
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Term
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Definition
| Phenotypically different individuals mate and produce an excess of hetero-zygotes. |
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Definition
| Agent of evolutionary change characterized by statistical accidents. The random fluctuation in allele frequencies increases as population size decreases |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of genetic drift where one or a few individuals disperse and become the founders of a new, isolated population at some distance from their place of origin. Previously rare alleles in the source population may become more prominent in the new population. |
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Definition
| Where an individual’s population is drastically reduced in size and the remaining individual’s constitute a random genetic sample of the original population. |
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Definition
| An agent of evolutionary change where some individuals leave behind more progeny than others; can be artificial or natural. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reproductive success; the number of surviving offspring left in the next generation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to the survival rate of one phenotype compared to that of another. |
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Definition
| A type of selection where some individuals are more successful than others in attracting mates. |
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Term
| Frequency dependent selection |
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Definition
| A type of selection that favors certain phenotypes depending on how commonly or uncommonly they are found. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of selection where the favored phenotype changes as the environment changes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Selection favors individuals with copies of both alleles, and thus works to maintain both alleles in the population. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of selection that acts to eliminate intermediate types. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of selection that acts to eliminate one extreme from an array of phenotypes; the genes promoting this extreme become less frequent in the population and may eventually disappear. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of selection that acts to eliminate both extremes from an array of phenotypes, the result is to increase the frequency of an already common intermediate type. |
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