More sophisticated tool industry than Oldowan that was created by homo erectus.

• H. erectus developed cleavers (like hand axes without points) and various scrapers to process animal hides for bedding and clothing
• flake tools used to cut meat and process vegetables
• "retouching" into points for borers, drilling, or punching holes in material
• H. erectus use of raw materials demonstrates improved technological efficiency
• emphasis on smaller tools, economizing their materials

alternate forms of a single gene (dominant or recessive)

EX: A-B-O blood types, eye color

the study of humankind in all times and places. The four fields of anthropology include

1. Biological Anthropology
2. Archaeology
3. Cultural Anthropology
4. Linguistic Anthropology

3.7-2.9 mya

• BIPEDAL!!
• small brain size, but larger than ardipitheus
• due to adaptive radiation (a lot of bipeds living in different environments) robust and gracile form of austrolopithecines developed

many organisms adapting to different environments

EX: australopithecines- a lot of bipeds doing different things in different environments produced gracile and robust australo.

form of locomotion on two feet found in humans and their ancestors

more open terrain with drier environments and loss of dense forests allowed for bipedalism to come about

book: a society's shared and socially transmitted ideas, values, and perceptions, which are used to make sense of experience and generate behavior and are reflected in behavior

notes: culture is shared, learned symbolic systems of values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape and influence perception and behaviors

spread of ideas, customs or practices from one culture to another, or borrowing of traits between cultures; can be through trade, inter-marriage, or conflict

viewed as a major source of culture

a detailed description of a particular culture based on fieldwork (on-location research)

hallmark of ethnographic fieldwork is a combination of social participation and personal observation within the community being studied and interviews and discussion with individual members of a group

COMMONLY REFERRED TO AS PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

the introduction of alleles from the gene pool of one population into that of another  

genetic variants moving between populations - homogenizes them (dependent on population sizes)   

frequent gene flow tends to prevent speciation

events that reduce variation 

ex: migration to a new area, disease, volcano explosion

the alleles possessed for a particular trait

EX: Hh or BB or tt

• compared to australopithecines: increased cranial capacity, more gracile dentition, reduced body hair, flatter facial structure
• more diversity in tool kits
• coexisted with anatomically modern humans
• first out of Africa

(Humans and ancestors)

UPRIGHT BIPEDAL LOCOMOTION

"upright human"

a species within the genus homo first appearing just 2mya in Africa and ultimately spreading throughout the Old World

• taller 
• sexual dimorphism?
• technology, gathering, hunting
• encephalization
• more food processing done with tools, more gracile molars and jaw muscles
• Acheulian tools

"dwarf homo"

the product of a long period of evolution on a comparitively small island where environmental conditions placed body size at a selective advantage; despite small cranial capacity, sophisticated stone tool technologies beyond h. erectus were excavated

"handy human"

the first fossil members of the genus homo appearing 2.5 million years ago, with larger brains and smaller faces than australopithecus; used Oldowan tools

homo neanderthalis

(Neandertals)

a distinct group within the genus homo inhabiting Europe and Southwest Asia from approximately 30,000 to 125,000 years ago

• stocky, large trunk, more forward
• rugged musculature
• Mousterian Tools
• buried dead

3.2 year old fossil specimen (Australopithecine)

found in Ethiopia

bipedal locomotion of humans and small skull of apes

tool making tradition of the Neandertals

• a core was prepared and uniform flakes would be removed from it
• additional work done on each flake
• 14 tools in tool kit

mitochondrial DNA

(mtDNA)

• DNA found in mitochondria
• typically inherited from the mother (MATRILINE)
• Why use it? because there is more of it, cells have multiple copies unlike nuclear DNA

used to determine that a finger bone fragment was a common ancestor with Neandertal and modern Homo Sapiens

the first stone tool industry between 2.5 and 2.6 million years ago

• used by homo habilis
• pebble tools
• use a harder rock for hammer percussion
• core stone used as source for other tools
• used fine grained volcanics, cryptocrystalline, silicates

1. opposable thumbs
2. binocular vision
3. shared dental formula
4. sexual dimorphism
5. forms of locomotion

Charles Lyell's nonreligious theory to account for variations in the earth's surface

natural processes of erosion, volcanism, earthquakes, soil formation all slowly shaped the world we see

physically more modern, but not behaviorally

• broad midfaces, tall nasal cavities, high cranial vault
• appeared in Africa and southwestern Asia 200 thousand years ago

high degree of symbolic thought and cultural creativity (originated later than physical modernity)

single point mutation around 50 thousand years ago resulted in drastic restructuring of human brain and behavioral modernity?

widely accepted account of evolution; natural selection is the cornerstone

combines natural selection with an understanding of what produces biological diversity inheritance