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Definition
| the scientific study of behavior and mental processes |
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| the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment |
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| an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind |
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| a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable the organism to adapt survive, and flourish |
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| historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth |
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| the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors |
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· the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
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· the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
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| an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis |
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| pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base |
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| scientific study that aims to solve practical problems |
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| a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater wellbeing. |
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| a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders |
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| a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy |
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| the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it. (aka I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) |
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| thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns, hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions |
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| an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events |
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| a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
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| a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures |
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| repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances |
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| an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
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| a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them |
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| the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors |
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| all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study (note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population) |
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| a sample that fairly resents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
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· observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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· a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1
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| a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slop of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (also called a scattergram or scatter diagram) |
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| a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors |
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| an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies |
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· experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
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| the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
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| the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
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| assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups |
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| the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied |
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| the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulation of the independent variable |
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· the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
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| the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores |
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· the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
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| the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
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| a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
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| a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance |
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· the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
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| a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior (some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists) |
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Definition
| a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system |
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Definition
| the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body |
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Definition
| the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
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Definition
| a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next |
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Definition
| a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane |
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Definition
| the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse |
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Definition
| the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic or cleft |
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Definition
| chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse |
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction |
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Definition
| “morphine within” – natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure |
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Definition
| the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems |
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Central nervous system (CNS)
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Definition
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the brain and spinal cord
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| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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Definition
| the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body |
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Definition
| neural “cables” containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs |
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| neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system |
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| neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. |
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| central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs |
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| the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system |
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Definition
| the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. |
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| Sympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations |
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| Parasympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy |
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Definition
| a simple automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response |
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Definition
| interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning |
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Definition
| the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
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Definition
| chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another |
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Definition
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a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress
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Definition
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· the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
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tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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Definition
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an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
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PET (positron emission tomography) scan
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a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
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Definition
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a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
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fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
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Definition
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a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function
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Definition
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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
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Definition
| the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
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Definition
| a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal |
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Definition
| the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla |
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the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
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Definition
| a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus |
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Term
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Definition
| two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion |
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Definition
| a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion |
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Definition
| the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center |
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Definition
| cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons |
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Definition
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments |
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Definition
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position |
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Definition
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field |
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Definition
· the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear
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Definition
| an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
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Definition
| the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
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Definition
| areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. |
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Definition
| impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding) |
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Definition
· controls language expression – an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
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Definition
| controls language reception – a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe |
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the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
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Definition
| a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them |
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Definition
| every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us |
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Definition
· the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
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Definition
| threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes |
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| DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) |
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Definition
| a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes |
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Definition
| the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein |
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Definition
| the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes |
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Definition
| twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms |
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Definition
| twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment |
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| a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity |
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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
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Definition
| the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) |
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| the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes |
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Definition
| the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection |
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Definition
| the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations |
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Definition
| a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
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Definition
| in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female |
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Definition
| the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people that transmitted from one generation to the next |
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Definition
| an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior |
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Definition
| the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies |
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Definition
| giving priority to one’s own goals over groups goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications |
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Definition
| giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family of work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly |
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Definition
| physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone |
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Definition
| the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child |
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Definition
| the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. |
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Definition
| the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty |
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Definition
| a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave |
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Definition
| a set of expected behaviors for males and for females |
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Definition
| one’s sense of being male or female |
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Definition
| the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role |
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Definition
| the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished |
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Definition
| the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly |
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Definition
| a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span |
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Definition
| the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo |
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Definition
| the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month |
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Definition
| the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth |
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Definition
| agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm |
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| Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) |
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Definition
| physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions |
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Definition
| a baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple |
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Definition
| decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner |
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Definition
| biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience |
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Definition
| a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
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Definition
| interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas |
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Definition
| adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
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Definition
| all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities |
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Term
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Definition
| the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic |
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Term
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Definition
| the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view |
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Definition
| people’s ideas about heir own and others’ mental states – about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict |
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Term
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Definition
| a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others’ states of mind |
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Term
| Concrete operational stage |
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Definition
| in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts |
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Definition
| the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age |
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Term
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Definition
| an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
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Term
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Definition
| an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life |
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Term
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Definition
| according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers |
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Definition
| a sense of one’s identity and personal worth |
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Term
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Definition
| the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence |
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Definition
| the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing |
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| Primary sex characteristics |
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Definition
| the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible |
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Term
| Secondary sex characteristics |
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Definition
| non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair |
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Term
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Definition
| the first menstrual period |
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Definition
| one’s sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles |
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Term
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Definition
| in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood |
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Term
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Definition
| the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines |
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Term
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Definition
| a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning |
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Term
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Definition
| a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another |
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Term
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Definition
| research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period |
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Term
| Crystallized intelligence |
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Definition
| one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age |
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Term
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Definition
| one’s ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood |
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Term
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Definition
| the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement |
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Term
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Definition
| a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience |
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Term
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Definition
| learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) |
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Term
| Unconditioned response (UR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth |
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Term
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response |
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Term
| Conditioned response (CR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
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Term
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response |
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Term
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Definition
| the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response |
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Term
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Definition
| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
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Term
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Definition
| the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
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Term
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Definition
| –in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
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Term
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Definition
| behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; skinner’s term for behavior learned through classical conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
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Term
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Definition
| Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
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| a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research |
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| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
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| in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
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| increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response |
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| increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment) |
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| an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
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| a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer |
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| reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
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| Partial (intermittent) reinforcement |
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| reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
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| in operant conditioning a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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| Variable-interval schedule |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
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| an event that decreases the behavior that it follows |
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| a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it |
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| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
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| a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake |
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| a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment |
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| learning by observing others |
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| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
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| frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy |
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| positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior |
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