Term
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Definition
| a tendency in the development of animals to localization of important organs or parts in or near the head. |
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Term
| The forebrain (telencephalon & diencephalon) consists of: |
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Definition
| the cerebrum, olfactory lobe, olfactory nerve |
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Term
| The midbrain (mesencephalon) consists of: |
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Definition
| the optic lobe, optic chiasm, & optic nerve |
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Term
| The hindbrain (metencephalon & meyelencephalon) consists of: |
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Definition
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Term
| 2 parts of the nervous system: |
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Definition
| Central Nervous System (CNS) & Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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Term
| The 3 basic parts of a tetrapod brain: |
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Definition
| forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain |
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Term
| Birds don't have a large neocortex like mammals, but they do have _______, that serve the same functions. |
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Definition
| many clusters of basal nuclei |
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Term
| Dorsal Ventricular Cortex |
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Definition
| Region in birds' brains that contains cell clusters of the same type seen in the mammalian neocortex. |
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Term
| Tool use by Woodpecker finch: |
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Definition
| use curved twigs (often cactus needles) in the same way that woodpeckers use their tongues. |
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Term
| Tool use by Egyptian vulture: |
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Definition
| use stones as hammers to crack ostrich eggs. |
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Term
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Definition
| catch insects and use them to fish; grab bugs and put them on water surface, then spear fish that try to eat the bugs. |
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Term
| Tool use in New Caledonian Crow: |
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Definition
| Learn the behavior as chicks from observing adults, can alter tools to suit their needs, can use tools to get tools to get food. |
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Term
| General olfactory range in birds is similar to that of what other animal group? |
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Definition
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Term
| Birds with a well-developed sense of smell, and why: |
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Definition
New World vultures; to smell carrion.
Certain seabirds, such as tubenoses, have an increased olfactory epithelial surface area; picks up on chemical cues from zooplankton that allows them to locate predatory fish.
Kiwi birds have nostrils and Horbst corpsicles at the tip of their beaks; nocturnal birds that use tip of bill to probe ground and find food in the dark. |
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Term
| 3 eyelid types in birds of prey: |
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Definition
| Upper, lower, and transparent nictitating membrane that moves horizontally. |
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Term
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Definition
| Edge of nictitating membrane that is covered in microvilli that sweep across and clean eyeball. |
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Term
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Definition
| Produce chemical that cleans eyes. Not very well- understood. |
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Term
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Definition
| Tear ducts, produce saline solution that cleans eyes. |
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Term
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Definition
| White tissue behind retina, becomes clear and turns into cornea. |
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Term
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Definition
| Bone surrounding the eye. |
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Term
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Definition
| Portion of retina associated with light- focusing muscles. |
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Term
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Definition
| Back of the eye, location of visual cells (rods and cones). |
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Term
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Definition
| Portion of retina surrounded with highly sensitive cells, where light is ultimately focused. |
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Term
| The shape of a bird's eyes is an indicator of: |
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Definition
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Term
| Round raptor eyes are good at: |
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Definition
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Term
| Owls and nocturnal birds have tubular- shaped eyes, good for: |
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Definition
| increased light collection. |
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Term
| Differing location of eyes on birds' skulls yields: |
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Definition
| different fields of vision. |
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Term
| Eyes on sides of head (ex, passerines) yield: |
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Definition
| mostly monocular field of vision, with a slight binocular field of view. |
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Term
| Eyes on front of face (ex, owls) yield: |
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Definition
| increased binocular field of vision, and focus. |
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Term
| Which birds have both a central fovea and temporal fovea in their eyes, and why? |
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Definition
| Raptors; these structures allow for very high visual acuity in multiple areas. |
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Term
| Bird retinas are ________, meaning they don't contain blood vessels. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Highly vascular structure in vitreous fluid of birds' eyes; allows for diffusion of O2 and nutrients into the retina. |
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Term
| What types of photoreceptors do birds have, and what do they do? |
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Definition
| Rods (for low light), single cones (for color detection), and double cones (for UV detection). |
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Term
| Double cones (give details): |
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Definition
| Double- tipped cone cells. Have carotenoid- based oil droplets on the tips that protect from UV light while allowing birds to see UV rays. |
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Term
| Avian outer ear consists of: |
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Definition
| external auditory meatus, tympanum, columella (stapes), and oval window. |
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Term
| Avian inner ear consists of: |
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Definition
| cochlea and semicircular canals. |
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Term
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Definition
| located in cochlea, composed of hair cells between tectorial and basilar membranes that "tap" and dictate the loudness and pitch of sounds heard. |
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Term
| 3 physical features that give owls an excellent sense of hearing and allow their brains to triangulate sounds: |
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Definition
1) feathers on face function as a funnel
2) ears are asymmetrically set in the skull
3) right ear points up and left ear points down |
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Term
| Cave-dwelling birds that use echolocation: |
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Definition
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Term
| Semicircular canals (give details): |
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Definition
| Fluid- filled; ampula with cupula, and stereocilia inside; fluid will push cupula, brain interprets this as movement. |
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Term
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Definition
| vocal structure in songbirds, located directly below the trachea and between the left and right bronchi. |
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Term
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Definition
| internal and external labia, internal and external tympaniform membranes, interclavicular air sac. |
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Term
| Which is used for vocalizations with the syrinx, air exiting or entering the respiratory system? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| muscles associated with the syrinx. |
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Term
| Compare the syringeal musculature of passerine versus non-passerine birds: |
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Definition
| passerines have complex syringeal musculature of ~6 muscles, while non-songbirds have more simple syringeal musculature. |
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Term
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Definition
| syrinx located in trachea of non-songbirds. |
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Term
| Why does the syrinx have the ability to produce 2 tones? |
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Definition
| It consists of 2 different apertures, which can produce a low and high tone simultaneously. |
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Term
| Function of the trachea in avian vocalizations: |
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Definition
| increases volume of calls, acts as a resonance chamber, can be moved to alter sound. |
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Term
| Two different movements of the trachea that can influence avian calls: |
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Definition
| dorsoventral (widening/ thinning), and craniocaudal movement from the dorsal edge of the break-skull transition. |
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Term
| 2 pathways for vocal behavior in the avian brain, and how they differ: |
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Definition
| posterior descending pathway (production and acquisition of vocal behavior), anterior pathway (acquisition of vocal behavior). |
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Term
| High Vocal Center of brain: |
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Definition
| where both behavioral pathways for vocalization originate in birds. |
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Term
| Regarding vocal behavioral pathways in avian brains, everything in connected to and regulated by the ____________. |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ are specifically mate and territory- related bird vocalizations. |
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Definition
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Term
| Songs are specific to what season, and generally which gender? |
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Definition
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Term
| What chain of events leads to bird song production? |
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Definition
| increase of testosterone in the Spring, leads to increase in singing behavior and gonad size. |
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Term
| What chain of events leads to increased testosterone production in birds for the breeding season? |
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Definition
| Increased photoperiod in Spring, leads to increased melatonin production, leads to dramatic increase in testosterone levels. |
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Term
| Difference between brain structures of the sexes, in songbirds: |
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Definition
| females missing Area X (responsible for song production), have decreased vocalization as a result. |
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Term
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Definition
| attracting mates and/ or defending territory. |
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Term
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Definition
| feeding, predator avoidance, intraspecies communication. |
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Term
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Definition
| announce presence of predators. |
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Term
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Definition
| aggressive vocalizations directed at predators (harsh, short, repetitive). |
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Term
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Definition
| lacks harmonics, consists of pure, single notes. |
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Term
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Definition
| multiple sounds generated in a single vocalization, consists of overtones. |
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Term
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Definition
| loudest tone in a harmonic call; other, less sharp sound(s) is/ are overtone(s), and tend to be an octave above or below the fundamental frequency. |
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Term
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Definition
| Different accents, songs can vary by region like human accents can vary by region. Has to do with learned calls from specific locations, and could possibly be genetically linked. |
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Term
| Stranger and neighbor songs in Indigo Buntings: |
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Definition
| Neighboring bird will sing like the territory holder observing, while strangers will have a different dialect. Determines how the buntings interact with one another. |
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Term
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Definition
| Many birds have multiple songs, number varies among passerine species. |
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Term
| 4 reasons for having a large song repertoire: |
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Definition
1) Measure of mate quality
2) Local song (conspecific communication between males)
3) Prevent habituation (desensitization to song stimulation)
4) Stimulate ovarian development in females. |
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Term
| 3 bird types that must learn vocalizations, not inherent: |
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Definition
| Oscine songbirds, psittacids, hummingbirds |
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Term
| What is the sequence of events in avian song learning? |
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Definition
| critical period, no song, testosterone spike, subsong, crystallized song. |
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Term
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Definition
| when the bird's brain is plastic enough to remodel after experience. |
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Term
| Innate auditory template: |
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Definition
| the initial song- learning hard wiring of a bird's brain. |
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Term
| Acquired auditory template: |
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Definition
| auditory template of bird's brain is maturing, bird is taking in information but not yet vocalizing. |
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Term
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Definition
| "baby babble", triggered by a spike in testosterone after bird has developed its acquired auditory template. |
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Term
| What are the 2 different avian types of song learners? |
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Definition
| Age-limited (stop learning once they can produce songs), and open-ended (continuous acquisition). |
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Term
| Purpose of mimicry in birds such as mockingbirds and lyrebirds: |
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Definition
| exemplifies the benefit of a large song repertoire (indication of masculinity in male birds). |
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Term
| What is the purpose of duets in monogamous bird species? |
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Definition
| Male and female are both territorial, sing with one another for territorial defense and pair bond maintenance. |
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Term
| 3 major influences on the annual cycle: |
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Definition
1) Reproduction
2) Molting
3) Migration |
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Term
| What guides the annual cycle and the events that influence it? |
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Definition
| internal clock, influenced by photoperiod (day length). |
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Term
| What 2 annual cycle factors are energetically expensive, and therefore tend not to overlap? |
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Definition
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Term
| Why do ducks have such a busy annual cycle? |
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Definition
| due to their elliptical molting, which makes their molting cycle more intricate and therefore puts more pressure on when they can and cannot breed. |
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Term
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Definition
| internal cycle of roughly 24 hours; synchronizes via external cues such as photoperiod. |
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Term
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Definition
| "time givers"; example, sunrise (major cue) and photoperiod. |
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Term
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Definition
| internal cycle of roughly 1 year, based on changing day length throughout the seasons. |
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Term
| Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): |
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Definition
| region of the brain that triggers various outputs from the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in order to influence peripheral oscillators. |
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Term
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Definition
| circadian oscillators located in cells of tissues or organs outside of the suprachiasmatic nucleus. |
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Term
| What is the chain of events via internal clocks in the stimulation of hormone production by the pituitary gland? |
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Definition
| Light influences the pituitary to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutenizing hormone (LH), which stimulates gonadal function and causes an increase in breeding behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| predictable, back-and-forth movement; part of the year spent in breeding grounds, part of the year spent in wintering grounds. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unidirectional movement, "one way ticket" |
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Term
| Natal dispersal versus breeding dispersal: |
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Definition
| In natal dispersal, the place of birth is the first breeding site; in breeding dispersal, birds move on to new breeding grounds. |
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Term
| Where do migratory birds typically originate? |
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Definition
| Temperate & Arctic latitudes. |
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Term
| Diurnal migrators (detail and example): |
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Definition
| Migrate during the day time; soaring birds, song birds, pigeons, doves. |
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Term
| Nocturnal migrators (detail and example): |
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Definition
| Migrate after sundown; most passerines and shorebirds. |
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Term
| 2 reasons to migrate at night: |
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Definition
| Better temperature and wind speed conditions (less thermoregulation needed), and decreased risk of predation. |
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Term
| What bird types migrate both diurnally and nocturnally? |
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Definition
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Term
| What types of migratory birds split their time between North and South America? |
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Definition
| Neotropical migrants (ex, Blackpoll warblers). |
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Term
| At what altitude do birds fly when migrating? |
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Definition
| Relatively low (2000- 4000 ft), but certain species of passerines and shorebirds have been known to fly up to 15,000 ft. |
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Term
| Elevational migration among residential birds: |
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Definition
| A change in the living altitude of resident birds (primarily mountain dwellers). |
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Term
| What 3 factors are elevational migration based on? |
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Definition
1) variation in food availability
2) risk of nest predation (higher risk of predation at lower elevations- birds go up in to mountain ranges to nest safely)
3)Competition (new environments mean less competition). |
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Term
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Definition
| After the breeding season, birds move to a protected area between their Wintering and breeding ranges to molt safely before continuing to Wintering grounds. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sporadic movement much farther than usual by migratory birds, based on food availability and resources. |
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Term
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Definition
1) Energetically demanding
2) Many sources of mortality
3) Less time for reproduction |
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Term
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Definition
| Birds can take advantage of; food resources, habitat, extreme climate avoidance, reduced interspecific competition |
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Term
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Definition
| migratory restlessness; birds get antsy, especially at night time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changing day length, primary trigger of Zugunruhe, migratory restlessness. |
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Term
| What direction do tail winds originate Spring for migratory birds? |
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Definition
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Term
| What direction do tailwinds originate in the Winter for migratory birds? |
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Definition
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Term
| Hyperphagia (Migratory Fattening): |
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Definition
| Birds pack on fat in predictable places in order to store energy and maintain their aerodynamic shapes. |
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Term
| Flight muscle hypertrophy: |
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Definition
| Flight muscles become larger and build up in preparation for migration. |
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Term
| Major weather effector in regards to bird migration: |
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Definition
| Low pressure systems; warm, moist air from S meets and moves on top of cool, dry air from N; then moves from W to E due to the Coriolis Effect. |
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Term
| Birds travel behind ______ fronts in Spring migration (wind from S). |
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Definition
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Term
| Birds travel behind ______ fronts in Fall migration (wind from N/ NW). |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Bird stop wherever they are and "fall from the sky" in big storms while migrating. |
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Term
| Orientation determines ________, while navigation determines _______________ in migration. |
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Definition
| direction; specific location. |
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Term
| Orientation is _______, or hard-wired, while navigation is ________. |
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Definition
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Term
| What visual cues do birds use for navigation? |
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Definition
| mountain ranges, coastlines, bodies of water. |
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Term
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Definition
| Birds navigate relative to the position of the sun in the sky by navigational cue used by birds via moving themselves 15 degrees from the sun every hour in order to compensate for its movement in the sky. |
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Term
| Polarized light as a navigational cue: |
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Definition
| birds can detect lines of increasing light polarity that increase in intensity as they move away from the sun; indicates the sun's position on cloudy days. |
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Term
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Definition
| used by nocturnal migrators; based on position of constellations around the North star that rotate and provide a visual landmark. |
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Term
| Olfactory maps for navigation: |
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Definition
| some birds can follow odor gradients in order to find different locations, such as food sources and their nests. |
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Term
| How do birds use geomagnetism to navigate? |
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Definition
| some birds have magnetic material, such as iron or magnetite, that are associated with certain branches of cranial nerves; these deposits allow birds to sense the dip of the Earth's lines of magnetism. |
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Term
| Ganglion cells of the retina: |
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Definition
| allow birds to see the magnetic field of the Earth. |
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Term
| Birds can see and tend to move towards the ________ angle of dip in the Earth's magnetic field. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a fixed area that moves with an individual; "personal space"; defended continuously through display, call, and aggression. |
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Term
| 5 main types of territory: |
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Definition
1) Mating, nesting, and feeding (songbirds, etc.)
2) Mating, nesting (forage elsewhere)
3) Nesting only (coloniality)
4) Pairing, mating (lekking species)
5) Wintering (defend resources) |
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Term
| Benefit of territoriality: |
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Definition
| access to some resources. |
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Term
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Definition
| time and energy expensive, increased risk of injury and death, makes birds conspicuous to predators. |
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Term
| What is territory defense based on? |
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Definition
| Temporal variability of resources (not worth it if time- limited), and spatial availability of resources (not worth it if area is too large). |
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Term
| Predators generally need _________ territories than herbivores, even if herbivores are relatively large. |
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Definition
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Term
| Angle of head crest feathers (meaning): |
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Definition
| A head crest at 90 degrees indicates preparedness for attack, where a head crest at 0 degrees indicates retreat (and everything in between). |
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Term
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Definition
| Aggregation of either conspecifics or multiple species; non- breeding situation where males get along due to low testosterone levels. |
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Term
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Definition
| Decreased predation in large groups, safety in numbers, predatory inhibition. |
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Term
| What 3 things are a flocking group doing at any given time? |
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Definition
1) feeding
2) scanning for predators
3) fighting |
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Term
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Definition
| Group nesting during the breeding season, found in ~13% of bird species, primarily in seabirds. |
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Term
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Definition
| Anti- predator, increased vigilance and increased predator satiation; Feeding, glean knowledge of food sources from one another. |
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Term
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Definition
| Increase in competition; increase in mortality, neighbors eat offspring, increased disease and spread of ectoparasites. |
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Term
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Definition
| Birds overnight together, especially while flocking. This behavior has thermoregulatory, predator avoidance, and food location gleaning benefits. |
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