Term
| Identify two different ways in which prostitution might be incompatible with the essential ends of humanity if the essential ends of humanity are understood a bit differently. |
|
Definition
| Assuming the essential ends of humanity includes all the mental capacitates, including the ability to form meaningful relationships and if prostitution damages the capacity to form meaningful relationships, then prostitution is incompatible with the essential ends of humanity. Assuming the essential ends of humanity include treating all persons with respect and assuming that in selling sex a person treats themselves with contempt and in buying sex that person treats themselves or the seller with contempt, then prostitution is incompatible with the essential ends of humanity |
|
|
Term
What, in general, is existentialism, according to Sartre?
|
|
Definition
| Existentialism is the view that “existence” comes before “essence.” |
|
|
Term
| Why, offhand, does existentialism on this interpretation seem incoherent given the standard metaphysical understanding of “essence”? |
|
Definition
| If we understand essence in the traditional metaphysical way, which says we cannot exist without our essence and that our essence consists of properties that the thing would not exist without, then existentialism seems incoherent because it says existence becomes before essence. Something’s existence cannot proceed its essence. |
|
|
Term
| On what interpretation of “human essence” does existentialism make sense? |
|
Definition
| If “human essence” is interpreted as a function or a purpose, then existentialism makes sense because it makes sense, for humans, that their existence comes before their purpose. |
|
|
Term
|
Why does Sartre think that atheism entails existentialism? Does it on the standard interpretation of essence? Why or why not? Does it on the alternative interpretation? Why or why not?
|
|
Definition
|
Sartre thinks atheism entails existentialism if essence is interpreted as having a function or purpose (the alternative interpretation) because if there is no God to have created us with a purpose in mind, then our purpose would have to come after we existed. This alternative interpretation does entail existentialism. According to the standard interpretation of essence being the properties something cannot exist without, however, atheism does not entail existentialism because whether God exists or not is irrelevant: something's essence cannot proceed it's existence.
|
|
|
Term
| Sartre seems to infer from the premise that essence does not precede existence that existence precedes essence. What, if anything, is wrong with this inference? |
|
Definition
| What is wrong with this inference is that it falsely assumes that if essence does not come before existence, then existence comes before essence. That doesn’t follow because even if the essence does not come before existence, they may come into existence at the same time. |
|
|
Term
| What, according to Sartre, is the “first principle of existentialism”? |
|
Definition
| Man is nothing else but that which he makes of himself. |
|
|
Term
According to existentialism, value is subjective in one sense but not another. Explain.
|
|
Definition
| The sense in which existentialism is subjective is that all values come from human choice. According to existentialism, value is rooted in human choice. Unless there are humans to choose there would be no value. Prior to a human choice, nothing has value. |
|
|
Term
|
How dies Nietzsche distinguish the moral systems of good/bad and good/evil? What names does he give these moral systems? Which came first, and how did the other arise? |
|
Definition
|
The good/bad moral system is any pre-feudal system of land ownership with aristocrats and slave owners. In the good/bad system of the ancient Greeks, good is being courageous, beautiful, proud, rich and bad is being humble and meek. He calls this "master morality." The good/evil system is the Christian system. He calls this "slave morality." Slave morality arose because slaves didn't like being put down so they created a new morality that would make them good and make their masters look evil. This helped them gain control and a fragile sense of self worth.
|
|
|
Term
| Is “slave morality” good for humanity? Why or why not? (Nietzsche’s view). |
|
Definition
| No it’s not good because “slave morality” he thinks is stifling. When people accept it, it has the affect of stifling human greatness and creativity. Whereas if people accepted the ancient system of values that celebrated strength and assertion, that would help humanity to develop its full potential. |
|
|
Term
| What, according to Nietzsche, should humanity ultimately aim for in its actions? |
|
Definition
| The first thing we should do is reject the slave morality system and Christianity which will free us from self-doubt and shame and then we should achieve human excellence and advance the human race if we are an extraordinary person, and if we are not we should help them as much as we can and not make them feel guilty for being superior. We have to let the truly excellent fully flourish without any attempt of controlling them with the bad ideas of good and evil. |
|
|
Term
| What, according to Nietzsche, are the necessary social conditions for human flourishing and excellence? |
|
Definition
| We have to reject slave morality and put master morality in its place. |
|
|
Term
|
Using St. Paul's Exhortation and the Prayer of St. Francis as your basis for judgment, evaluate whether or not Nietzsche is right to suggest that acceptance of Christianity --"slave morality" -- is incompatible with the full development of the human potential for creativity. |
|
Definition
|
He is not right because it is still possible to develop our full potential according to the system of slave morality. It actually encourages us to develop our full potential.
|
|
|
Term
| How does Socrates' view of the value to a person of acting justly differ fundamentally form that of Nietzsche? |
|
Definition
| Socrates values acting justly because he believes it has intrinsic value for the person who acts. It benefits the actor; justice is good for you. Nietzsche thinks that acting justly can stifle the extraordinary people, so justice is only good so far as it benefits the creative people by allowing them to fully develop by being safe and secure. Justice has only instrumental value. Socrates believes that it has intrinsic value. |
|
|
Term
| What are Arjuna's doubts in the fact of battle and what considerations justify these doubts in his mind? |
|
Definition
| He doubts leading the troops into battle because the battle will have horrible consequences, he will lead men to their deaths, and he will pit families against each other. He thinks maybe he should just surrender. |
|
|
Term
| How does Krishna respond to Arjuna's doubts and why does this response seem unjustifiably harsh? |
|
Definition
| Krishna says, you are a coward and get on with it, get over it. It seems harsh because Arjuna's dilemma seems truly reasonable, and really a sign that he is reasoning logically. |
|
|
Term
| What interpretation of renunciation and non-attachment leads Arjuna to think that he should not fight? |
|
Definition
| He interprets renunciation to mean that he should give up worldly motivations (like power, wealth, glory) and non-attachment to mean that he should not worry about the consequences of your justifiable actions. If he renounces the glory and power of victory, and ignores the things he would loose by surrendering (like his position and his glory) then he should surrender. |
|
|
Term
| What interpretation of renunciation and non-attachment leads Krishna to think that Arjuna should fight? |
|
Definition
| Through renunciation, you only renounce worldly motivations, but still keep duty motivations. Since he is a general and it is his duty to lead his troops into war, he should not worry about the consequences of his fighting according to non-attachment. |
|
|
Term
| Lao Tzu makes a distinction between "the named" and "the nameless." What other features of these two things does he mention? What is best identified with reality, which with appearance? Which with the finite, which with the infinite? Which with change and which with the unchanging? |
|
Definition
Named: not the constant way, many (mother of myriad creatures),not the beginning of all things.
Finite, appearance, not-God, worldly, temporal, ITS manifestations.
Nameless: Constant way, one, beginning of heaven and earth.
Infinite, ultimate reality, God, spiritual, eternal, ITS secrets |
|
|
Term
| After distinguishing "the named" and "the nameless" Lao Tzu writes "Hence always rid yourself of desires in order to observe its secrets." What does he mean? By "its secrets"? By "hence"? |
|
Definition
| The connection in the author's mind between the named and nameless and how it follows that to know the secrets you must let go of your desires. Its secrets are the ultimate reality, and in order to reach the ultimate reality, we must rid ourselves of the limits The Named places on our minds by focusing us on this. |
|
|
Term
Lao Tzu writes: "The sage keeps to the deed that consists in taking no action and practices the teaching that uses no words." What does he mean and why does he say this? Lao Tzu writes: "the way never acts and yet nothing is left undone." Why does "the way" never act? Why is nothing left undone?
|
|
Definition
He is saying that we should not try to change things because they are just the way they are supposed to be. Nothing will be left undone, because everything is already functioning to get everything done.
That is why the sage (the wise man) takes no action: he does not need to make waves because we do not need change. Everything is just the way things should be. |
|
|
Term
|
Why does it make sense to think that everything is as it should be if everything that happens, happens necessarily and "ought" implies "can"? |
|
Definition
|
Everything that happens, happens necessarily: there is no other possible world. Things must happen the way they happen. Things cannot be different, so it makes no sense to say they should be different. Therefore things should not be different, or everything is as it should be.
|
|
|
Term
| Lao Tzu writes: "The man of the highest virtue does not keep to virtue and that is why he has virtue." Explain. |
|
Definition
| A man of the highest virtue does virtuous things,not because they are virtuous, but just because it comes naturally to him. He does not have to think about it, he just naturally does virtuous things. |
|
|
Term
|
Lao Tzu distinguishes a number of character types: benevolence, rectitude, virtue, and attachment to rites. Explain what each is. What is the best way to be once "the way" is lost? What is the next-best, the worst, and next to worst? |
|
Definition
|
The best way to be is virtuous because virtue is to do something just because it is right. Next is benevolence which is doing good things to help others. The next to worse is rectitude which is only being concerned with what is legally right and wrong. The worst is attachment to rights which is only wanting people of think well of you by doing what is customary and expected. |
|
|
Term
|
What are “rites” and why are they such an important part of living well, according to Confucius (inner and outer harmony)? |
|
Definition
|
Rites are actions that are customary and expected. He thinks rites are such an important part of living well because they help develop good character which helps you achieve inner and outer harmony partly because when you're in the habit of doing the rites you make others feel respected which promotes social harmony and makes you feel at ease in social situations. |
|
|
Term
| How do Lao Tzu and Confucius differ on the importance of rites? What difference in empirical assumptions about human psychology might explain their difference here? |
|
Definition
| Confucius thinks Lao Tzu’s psychology is inaccurate and unrealistic. Lao Tzu thinks it’s just possible to be virtuous naturally. Confucius is saying that’s not how humans learn; humans learn by practicing and by getting in certain habits. They learn to be virtuous by getting in the habit of acting a certain way. From Confucius’s view, it’s not possible to develop virtue without developing these habits. We become virtuous by getting in the habit of acting certain ways. Right thinking follows right action in human development. |
|
|
Term
| List and describe the Four Noble truths of Suffering. |
|
Definition
| The 1st is that all life is suffering; everything is suffering. The 2nd one is that we suffer because we have unsatisfied desires. The 3rd is that when we cease to have desires we cease to suffer. The 4th is how to get to the point where you don’t desire anything, by using the eightfold path. |
|
|
Term
| Is it possible to attain Enlightenment solely though meditation? Why or why not? |
|
Definition
| According to Buddhism, meditation practices alone are not enough. You can only get to this point of spiritual bliss once you’ve eliminated all of your shortcomings as a person and become perfected and go through a process of development. |
|
|
Term
What does Sartre mean in saying that in choosing for oneself, one chooses for all mankind? What is his argument for this position?
|
|
Definition
| Whenever we make a choice, we commit ourselves to say that that choice is right for everyone in that same situation. To say that something is good for me is to say that it is also good for other people similarly situated. In this sense, when we choose for ourselves, we choose for all mankind. However, all of mankind is not similarly situated. |
|
|
Term
How does Sartre’s view about choosing for all mankind help defend existentialism against the charge that it is subjective in a bad way?
|
|
Definition
| It allows existentialism to say that other people are wrong. It is possible for someone to believe they are making the best decision when it is really the wrong one. If we accept subjectivism in the first sense, then we couldn’t say that what other people are doing is wrong. If someone believes an act is right then it is right. |
|
|
Term
Does the conclusion that in choosing for oneself, one chooses for all mankind follow from the premise 1) that ones chooses to do something only if one believes it to be the best choice and the premise 2) that one believes that something is best choice for one person only if it is right for everyone similarly situated? Why/not?
|
|
Definition
| It follows only if everyone is similarly situated. Not all of mankind is similarly situated with respect to every choice, therefore the conclusion does not follow. |
|
|
Term
According to Sartre, atheism implies that value is subjective in one important sense. Why does he think this? Is he right? Why/not?
|
|
Definition
| Atheism is subjective in the second sense, that something has value only if someone chooses it. If atheism is true, things can be valuable without anyone choosing them. Sartre is wrong because Atheism does not entail subjectivism and some value is objective, valuable whether or not anyone chooses it. If God does not exist, then the source of value must be our choices. If God does not create value, then we must create it ourselves. |
|
|
Term
How, given his position in Euthyphro, would Socrates disagree with Sartre on the nature of value?
|
|
Definition
| Yes, he would disagree because Socrates believes that things have value on their own, and that Gods choose things because they are already valuable. Sartre believes that we give things value ourselves, regardless of if God exists or not. |
|
|
