Term
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Definition
| secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions t body cavities, into lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the body; e.g. sweat, sebaceous (oil), mucous, and digestive glands. |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells rather than into ducts. From the interstitial fluid, hormones diffuse into capillaries and blood carries them to target cells throughout the body; e.g. pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands. |
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Term
| Tissues/organs that release hormones as secondary function |
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Definition
| 1. hypothalamus 2. thymus 3. pancreas 4. ovaries 5. testes 6. kidneys 7. stomach 8. liver 9. small intestine 10. skin 11. heart 12. adipose tissue 13. placenta |
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Term
| Differentiate between the nervous system and the endocrine system |
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Definition
Nervous Endocrine
1. Regulation: nerve impulses Hormones
2. Delivery: neurons blood
3. Control muscles & organs Metabolic activities of cells (inside cells)
4. Response: immediate lag period
5. Duration short pro-longed |
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Term
| What are the 3 classes of hormones |
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Definition
1. amino acid based hormones - water soluble; amine, peptide, and protein hormones; e.g. antiduretic hormone (ADH), human growth hormone (HGH), calcitonin.
2. steriods - derived from cholesterol and lipid, lipid soluble; e.g. estrogen, testosterone.
3. Eicosanoids - released from cells and have effect on neighboring cells (localized effect); e.g. prostaglandin. |
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Term
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Definition
| cell that responds to the hormone and has specific receptors for that particular hormone. |
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Term
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Definition
1. help regulate chemical composition and volume of internal environment (interstitial fluid) by altering plasma membrane permeability.
2. help regulate metabolism and energy balance
3. help regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle fibers.
4. help regulate glandular secretions
5. help regulate some immune system activities
6. control growth and development (stimulate mitosis - cell division)
7. regulate operation of reproductive systems.
8. help establish circadian rhythms.
stimulate protein synthesis.
9. activate or deactivate enzyme system |
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Term
| 3 Functions of transport proteins |
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Definition
1. they make lipid-soluble hormones temporarily water-soluble, thus increasing their solubility in blood
2. they retard passage of small hormone molecules through the filtering mechanism in the kidneys, thus slowing the rate of hormone loss in the urine.
3. they provide a ready reserve of hormone in the bloodstream. |
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Term
| Action of amino acid-based hormones |
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Definition
* cannot diffuse through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
1. Hormone binds to receptor on exterior surface of plasma membrane, receptor changes shape and activates G protein.
2. Activated G-protein activates the effector enzyme adenylate cyclase to convert ATP to cAMP (occur inside cell in the cytosol)
3. Cyclic AMP (the second messenger) causes the activation of several enzymes.
4. Activated enzymes catalyze reactions that produce physiological responses. |
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Term
| Action of lipid-soluble, steroid based hormones |
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Definition
1. Lipid soluble passes through plasma membrane into cell
2. Hormone binds to and activates receptors in nucleus.
3. Chromatin binds to hormone/receptor complex and direct it to the DNA.
4. Hormone/receptor complex binds to DNA
5. This binding prompts DNA transcription.
6. Molecule of mRNA is produced
7. mRNA direct the synthesis (translation) of a new protein, often an enzyme or an export protein. |
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Term
| Target cell receptor specificity |
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Definition
* hormones affect target cells only
* bind to cell surface or intracellular protein receptor |
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Term
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Definition
*When your body is more sensitive to the hormone.
1. target cell increases number of receptors in response to increasing hormone levels in blood.
2. target cell becomes more sensitive to hormone |
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Term
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Definition
* When your body is less sensitive to the hormone.
1. target cell decreases receptors in response to decreasing hormone level in blood.
2. decrease receptors due to prolonged high level of hormone. |
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Term
| 3 types of hormone Interactions |
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Definition
1. Permissiveness - the actions of some hormones on target cells require simultaneous or recent exposure to a second hormone to exert their full effects.
2. synergism - occurs when more than one hormone produces the same effects and their combined effects are greater or more extensive than the sum of each hormone acting alone; e.g. glucagon and epinephrine, FSH and estrogen on oocytes development.
3. Antagonism - One hormone opposes another hormone; insulin (+glycogen) and glucagon (-glycogen). |
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Term
| 3 ways of antagonistic effect |
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Definition
1. compete for receptors
2. act through different metabolic pathway
3. Hormone can cause down regulation at receptors. |
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Term
| 3 ways hormone secretion is regulated |
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Definition
1. signals from the nervous system; e.g. epinephrine
2. chemical changes in the blood; e.g. blood Ca+ level (low - parathyroid, high - calcitonin)
3. one hormone promote the release of another hormone; e.g. the hypothalamus release hormones that stimulate pituitary to release hormone. |
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Term
| Negative feed back mechanism |
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Definition
| how the majority of hormone are regulated. |
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Term
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Definition
| pseudostratified columnar epithelium |
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Term
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Definition
| simple columnar epithelium |
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Term
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Definition
| simple squamous epithelium |
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Term
| Two types of alveolar epithelial cells |
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Definition
1. type I alveolar cells - simple squamous epithelial cells that form a nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall; thin and are the main sites of gas exchange.
2. Type II alveolar cells - are fewer in number and are found in between type I alveolar cells; cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete alveolar fluid (surfactant), which keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist. |
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Term
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Definition
| substance in alveolar fluid, a complex mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins; lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid. This surface tension reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse. |
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Term
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Definition
| wandering phagocytes that remove find dust particles, debris, and pathogen from the alveolar spaces. |
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Term
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Definition
| made up of the alveolar and capillary wall, where the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the air spaces in the lungs and the blood takes place by diffusion. |
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Term
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Definition
the process of gas exchange in the body, has 3 basic steps.
1. pulmonary ventilation
2. external respiration
3. internal respiration |
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Term
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Definition
| or breathing, is the inhalation/inspiration (inflow) and exhalation/expiration (outflow) of air and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the aveoli of the lungs. |
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Term
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Definition
| is the exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood; pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses CO2. |
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of gases between tissue and blood; blood loses O2 and gains CO2. |
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Term
| Describe the process of inhalation/inspiration |
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Definition
| The lungs expand, which increases lung volume and thus decreases the pressure in the lung to below atmospheric pressure. Air flow down the pressure gradient from high to low, air goes from atmosphere into the lungs. Expanding he lungs during normal quiet inhalation involves contraction of the main muscles of inhalation, the diaphragm and external intercostals. Both normal quiet inhalation and inhalation during forced ventilation involved muscular contraction. |
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Term
| Describe the process of exhalation/expiration |
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Definition
1. The process of breathing out is also due to a pressure gradient; the pressure is greater in the lungs than in the atmosphere.
2. Normal exhalation during quiet breathing , unlike inhalation, is a passive process because no muscular contractions are involved. Exhalation results from the elastic recoil of the thoracic wall and lungs, both of which have a natural tendency to spring back after they have been stretched. |
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Term
| Two forces which contribute to the elastic recoil |
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Definition
(1) the recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inhalation
(2) the inward pull of surface tension due to the film of alveolar fluid. |
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Term
| Accessory muscles which are also involved during forced inhalation, in addition to the diaphragm and the external intercostals |
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Definition
1. sternocleidomastoids
2. scalenes
3. pectoralis minors |
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Term
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Definition
A measure of how much effort is needed to expand lungs and chest wall.
High - expand easily
Low - resist expansion, hard to expand. |
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Term
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Definition
1. Arises at air-water interfaces because the polar water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other than they are to gas molecules in the air.
2. Is present on the surface of alveoli due to a thin layer of alveolar fluid that coats the aveoli. |
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Term
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Definition
A measure of ease of flow through the airway passages.
1. airflow decreases when there is greater resistance in the airway and increases when there is less resistance.
2. During inhalation, the bronchioles enlarge (bronchial dilation), resistance decrease, allowing greater flow of air.
3. During exhalation, the diameter of the bronchioles decrease (bronchioconstriction), airway resistance increases. |
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Term
| Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure |
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Definition
| Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas in the mixture. |
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Term
| What is the percent of O2 and CO2 in air |
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Definition
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Term
| Henry's Law of Solubility |
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Definition
The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility.
* Much more CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma because the solubility of CO2 is 24X greater than that of O2. |
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Term
| O2 and CO2 diffusion is based on what two things. |
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Definition
1. Partial pressure gradient: The steeper the gradient, the faster the diffusion.
2. Solubility
*O2 diffuses faster because it has a steeper gradient.
*CO2 gradient is not as steep, diffusion will still occur, but not as fast as O2. |
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Term
| O2 diffuses rapidly from the the alveoli into the blood, CO2 diffuses slower. Why? Equal amount of O2 and CO2 must be exchanged. How? |
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Definition
1. O2 has a higher partial pressure and steeper gradient, thus it diffuses faster.
2. CO2 is much more soluble than O2. CO2 goes into solution much faster. |
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Term
| Describe the movement of O2 and CO2 for internal and external respiration |
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Definition
1. Internal respiration: O2 unloading out of blood and into tissue cells. CO2 diffusing out of tissue and into blood.
2. External respiration - O2 loading into blood. CO2 unloading out of blood. |
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Term
| Two ways O2 is transported |
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Definition
1. Bound to hemoglobin - 98.5%
* The Heme (iron) binds to four O2
2. Dissolved in plasms - 1.5% |
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Term
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Definition
| When every available iron atom has combined with a molecule of O2 (fully saturated) |
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Term
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Definition
| hemoglobin after dropping off O2 at tissue; not bound to O2 or only partially bound. |
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Term
| Although partial pressure of O2 is the most important factor that determines the percent O2 saturation. Name 3 other factors that influence the affinity with which hemoglobin binds O2, |
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Definition
1. Acidity (pH): As the acidity increases (pH decreases), the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 decreases, and O2 dissociate more readily from hemoglobin.
2. Partial pressure of CO2: As partial pressure of CO2 rises, hemoglobin releases O2 more readily.
3. Temperature: as temperature increases, so does the amount of O2 released from hemoglobin. |
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Term
| Cooperative binding, affinity/attraction of O2 to hemoglobin |
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Definition
| After 1 molecule O2 binds to the hemoglobin, it makes it easy for others O2 to bind |
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Term
| What are the 3 ways CO2 is transported in the body? |
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Definition
1. Dissolved in plasma - 7%
2. Bound to the "globin" part of hemoglobin - 23%
3. Bicarbonate ion - 70% |
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Term
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Definition
| a hemoglobin which has CO2 bound to the globin part. |
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Term
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Definition
| When HCO3- moves out of the RBC and in exchange the CL- moves into the RBC, this exchange of negative ions, which maintains the electrical balance between blood plasma and RBC cystosol |
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Term
| 4 factors that determine the rate of respiration (internal and external) |
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Definition
1. The partial pressures difference of the gases: The rate of diffusion is faster if the gradient is steeper.
2. Surface area: Surface area increases, rate of respiration increases.
3. Solubility of gases.
4. Diffusion distance: Distance increases, rate of respiration decreases. |
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Term
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Definition
| enzyme that catalyze the reaction of CO2 and H2O to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid immediately ionizes into H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate ion). Bicarbonate ion travels in the blood plasma. This reaction is reversed at the lung to form CO2, which is then exhaled. |
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Term
| Medullary rhythmicity area |
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Definition
| Located in the medulla oblongata and controls the basic rhythm of respiration. Has two areas (1) inspiratory and (2) expiratory areas. |
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Term
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Definition
| Generates nerve impulses every 2 seconds, which set normal breathing rate and rhythm call "Eupnea". The nerve impulses are sent along the phrenic (diaphragm) and intercostal nerv (intercostals) and trigger muscle contractions - inhalation. |
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Term
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Definition
*Only active in forced expiration. During normal expiration, no muscle contract.
Impulses are sent to abdominals and internal intercostals. |
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Term
| Pneumotaxic area (Pontine) |
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Definition
Located in the upper pons. Transmits inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory area - "turn off" inspiration.
--helps us from breathing in too much.
--shortens duration of inhalation.
--makes breathing more rapid.
**Overrides signals from the apneustic area** |
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Term
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Definition
Located in the lower pons. Sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area.
--prolong inhalation, resulting in long, deep inhalation. |
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Term
| 3 Main Areas of Respiration Center in the Brain |
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Definition
1. Medullary Rhymicity Area
2. Pneumotaxic Area
3. Apneustic Area |
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Term
| Other factors that affect normal breathing rate and rhythm. |
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Definition
1. Cortical influences
2. Chemoreceptors
3. Proprioceptor stimulation
4. Inflation reflex |
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Term
| Other influences on Respiration |
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Definition
1. Limbic system stimulation: Anticipation of activity or emotional anxiety may stimulate the limbic system, which then sends excitatory input to the inspiratory area, increasing the rate and depth of ventilation.
2. Temperature: An increase in body temperature (fever, vigorous exercise) increases the rate of respiration.
3. Pain
4. Stretching of the anal sphincter muscle
5. Irritation of airways
6. Blood pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| Absence of breathing. For example, a sudden cold stimulus such as plunging into cold water cause breathing to stop temporarily. |
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Term
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Definition
| Normal breathing rate and rhythm |
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Term
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Definition
| Increase in partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood/decrease in partial pressure of CO2. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rapid and deep breathing, allows the inhalation of more O2 and exhalation of more CO2 until P-CO2 and H+ are lowered to normal. |
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Term
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Definition
| The physiological response to an acid-base imbalance that acts to normalize arterial blood pH. If a person has altered blood pH due to metabolic causes, hyperventilation/hypoventilation can help bring blood pH back to normal range; occurs within minutes and reaches its max within hours. |
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Term
| 4 main players in Second Messenger System |
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Definition
1. First messenger: when the water-soluble hormone binds to its receptor at the outer surface of the plasma membrane.
2. Signal transducer: G-protein
3. Effective enzyme: Adenylate cyclase (ATP --> cAMP)
4. Second messenger: cAMP (activates other enzymes) |
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Term
| List examples of Amino acid based hormones |
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Definition
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
melatonin
histamine
seratonin |
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Term
| List examples of peptide proteins |
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Definition
| oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone, human growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, insulin, glucagon |
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Term
| List examples of eicosanoids |
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Definition
| prostaglandins, leukotrienes |
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Term
| Describe Cortical influences |
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Definition
cerebral cortex
--voluntary control, ability to not breathe is protective is case of irritating or toxic gas.
--Emotions (e.g. laughing and crying): nerve impulses from the hypothalamus and limbic system also stimulate the respiratory center. |
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Term
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Definition
--central (located in or near the medulla oblongata)
--peripheral (everywhere else)
monitor levels of CO2, H+, and O2 and provide input to the respiratory center. |
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Term
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Definition
| blood pH falls below 7.35 --> increase breathing rate |
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Term
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Definition
| blood pH rises above 7.45 --> decrease breathing rate. |
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Term
| Proprioceptor stimulation |
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Definition
| detect movement of joints and muscles --> send impulses to the inspiratory center. |
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Term
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Definition
| stretch sensitive receptors, baroreceptors, located in bronchi and bronchioles detect pressure, send inhibitory signals to the inspiratory center --> prevent overinflation of the lungs. |
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Term
| How many alveoli are in our lungs. Why? |
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Definition
800-600 million
Having many alveoli increases the surface area for gas exchange. |
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Term
| Responsiveness of a target cell is dependent on what 3 factors? |
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Definition
1. hormone concentration
2. the abundance of the target cell's hormone receptors
3. influences exerted by other hormones and its affinity for those receptors due to
--> up regulation
--> down regulation |
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